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J.L Austin (1955/1976) How to do Things with Words.

Austin's work belongs in the tradition of 'ordinary language' philosophy, a tradition whose intellectual consequences we now take so much for granted that we rarely remember what the issues were which exercised it. The lectures Austin gave at Harvard in 1955 in which he developed his theory of the speech act and the performative were concerned with challenging existing philosophical positions concerning language and its functions: the assumption that language consisted of statements, which 'referred' to something, and were always either true or false. For Austin, this was demonstrably not the case and he chose a number of statements (he called them constatives) which seemed to 'masquerade as a statement of fact' (1955: 4) but were in fact neither describing nor reporting anything, not true or false, but were utterances which involved 'the doing of an action':

'I do (sc. take this woman to be my lawful wedded wife)'- as uttered in the course of the marriage ceremony.
'I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth' - as uttered when smashing the bottle against the stern.
'I give and bequeath my watch to my brother' - as occurring in a will.
(Austin 1955: 5)

These were the kinds of utterances which Austin called performative. It is worth noting that in each of the examples above, Austin provides a context in which the performative speech act would be appropriate and would successfully accomplish the action it performs. He went on to describe what he called 'the doctrine of infelicities' (1955: 14) in which he attempted to account for all the kinds of things which might go wrong and mean that a performative speech act did not work as it should. For example one might say: 'I take this man to be my wedded husband' in a context which was not that of marriage, and addressed to someone without the power to enact that marriage. In such a case the performative would be 'infelicitous'. The case of infelicity for which he has been remembered best, because of Derrida's later challenge to it (but there were many others), was that which involved precisely the theatrical, or literary, performance of an otherwise performative speech act:

... a performative utterance will, for example, be in a peculiar way hollow or void if said by an actor on the stage, or if introduced in a poem, or spoken in soliloquy. ... Language is such circumstances is in special ways - intelligibly - used not seriously, but in ways parasitic upon its normal use - ways which fall under the doctrine of the etiolation of language. (Austin 1955: 22)

At first Austin distinguished performatives very strictly from statements or constatives but as he worked more on and with them, he began to understand that this distinction really would not hold. He believed for a time that the distinction 'performative-constative' might be justified as a distinction between 'doing and saying' (1955: 47), but the more he attempted to find grammatical criteria to define the performative, the more he became convinced that 'it is often not easy to be sure that, even when it is in explicit form, an utterance is performative or that it is not.' (1955: 91) By 'explicit' he meant those utterances in the first person singular present indicative active which he had first characterised as bearing the mark of the person uttering and enacting the performative: e.g., I apologise, I criticise, I approve.



This was the point at which he developed the terminology locution, illocution, perlocution. A locutionary act is a simple use of speech to mean or to refer, but such a use always has illocutionary force, that is it does something like making a statement, asking a question, giving an order. At the same time, it may also perform an act of another kind, it may 'produce certain consequential effects upon the feelings, thoughts or actions of the audience, or of the speaker, or of other persons: and it may be done with the design, intention, or purpose of producing them.'(Austin 1955: 101) In this sense then, Austin saw that all ordinary language speech acts were performatives and that any speech act usually functioned to perform several kinds of act at once: referring/meaning, stating/asking etc., persuading/intending and so on.

 

Derrida and Austin

Derrida's (1982) account in 'Signature, Event, Context' of the 'relative originality' of Austin's (1955/1976) theory of the speech act focussed on the fact that Austin did not see communication as being about 'the transport or passage of a content or meaning' but rather saw it as an event, as being about 'the production of an effect', 'the performative .... would be to communicate a force by the impetus of a mark' (Derrida 1982: 321).

Austin was, for Derrida, radical in 'exploding' the traditional concept of communication by recognising the conventionality of the contexts in which statements were made but less so, Derrida argues, in failing to recognise the 'intrinsic conventionality of locution itself' (1982: 323). This was the circumstance which impelled Derrida to theorise iterativity, to place the focus firmly back on the structure and form of the utterance itself. Iteration, in Derrida's work, deconstructed the opposition between repetition and difference, between stasis and change, indicating that repetition always involved a certain instability, that although convention and repetition are fundamental to communication, nothing is ever repeated in exactly the same way.

This was because what was crucial to understand for Derrida was not that the locution would be infelicitous if the context did not remain the same, but rather that the locution would go on meaning in radical disregard of the proper or appropriate context. Because of this radical structure of the mark, of writing (which in Derrida includes the speech act) there can be no 'infelicities' in Austin's sense - 'Every sign., linguistic or non-linguistic, spoken or written (in the usual sense of this opposition) ... can be cited ... thereby it can break with every given context, and engender infinitely new contexts in an absolutely unsaturable fashion.' (Derrida 1982: 320). The citation of the mark, that is the repetition of the conventional locution, is what is called iterability. The fact that the mark/locution can be cited (and made to signify) in any context at all is what ensures instability and change. Note the parallels here with Bakhtin's understanding of dialogism. This concept of citation and iterability is central to Judith Butler's understanding of the way change in meaning, what she calls resignification, and later, a different performance of the self, takes place.

 

Judith Butler

Judith Butler's work has been in every sense a feminist politics of the body. She has argued that it is the speech act as performative which both materialises and makes bodies matter (Bodies that Matter 1993). Her work has challenged the hegemony (the compulsory performance of heterosexuality) which banishes certain ('lacking'/deficient - e.g., women's, racialised, gay and lesbian) bodies to an abject and excluded realm, the realm of matter or nature. Butler is working here with Irigarayan ideas, specifically the notion that radical alterity (woman) has always been associated with the 'outside of language', the inarticulable, nature/matter. Butler's work and her politics are aimed at forcing 'a radical rearticulation of what qualifies as bodies that matter' (1993: 16).

Butler's account of performatively enacting social change involves recognising on the one hand, the power of the speech act as citation and iteration (being repeated in the same conventional forms) to produce stable hegemonies (e.g., heterosexuality as norm) and on the other, understanding that the very business of iteration, in its interaction with new contexts, produces the possibility of change. In her work the term iteration, like citation, is further complicated by being read through psychoanalysis. Thus she asks: 'Is "assuming" a sex like a speech act?' (1993: 108) Her answer is that it is never a single act, but is rather 'an iterable practice'. Assuming a sexed position involves, according to Lacan, obeying a legislative norm, but to do that involves/requires 'citing or miming that norm' repeatedly. It is in that repetition/iteration, in Butler's work, that both the power of the law and the possibility of recognising it for what it is and refusing it is to be found.

Thus Butler 'makes visible' the gender hierarchy and its performative mode of production, linking speech act to body through her understandings of Althusser's concept of the materiality of ideology (it is bodily practice which makes us believe) and Foucault's work on the disciplining of the body through the practice of discursive events. 'Gender is the repeated stylization of the body, a set of repeated acts within a highly rigid regulatory frame that congeals over time to produce the appearance or substance of a natural sort of being' (Butler 1990: 33). Butler does also attempt to understand how norms of gender, sexuality and race intertwine in the production of different kinds of subjects.

However, the question we have to ask is whether 'making visible' what iteration does and then recontextualising so as to 'resignify' the processes of iteration of gender norms, is actually enough to effect a change, to radically alter the system of gender hierarchy, compulsory heterosexuality and other forms of oppression. Butler's work, despite being about the body is in fact textual and it works on and with texts to change the meanings of heterosexuality and its others: e.g., the reading of alternative kinship structures in the film, Paris is Burning, as a resignification that 'might help to rethink the terms that establish and sustain bodies that matter' (1993: 240f.). The question however of what an 'affirmative resignification' might be remains open since 'the one who utters or writes' cannot control the effects of performatives, which 'continue to signify in spite of their authors, and sometimes against their author's most precious intentions' (1993: 241). For Butler this not knowing, 'the incalculable effects of action', results from always being implicated in what one opposes while trying to turn power against itself (1993: 241).

Kirby (1997) has argued that Butler's account is limited to a linguistic or discursive account which fails to understand the way oppression may actually craft and shape the materiality of the body through, for example, starvation, torture, long hours of lowly paid and exploited labour and so on. Similarly Pheng Cheah (1994: 138f.) has questioned the metaphor of rewriting, resignification, asking whether it constitutes an adequate model of agency in a neo-colonialist space where the very matter of the body 'bears the instituted trace of the spacing and timing of imperialism'. In such a space:

Inscription will unfortunately exceed the undoubtedly important horizons of sexual preference and the choice to cross-dress or engage in sadomasochistic sex. Because we would here have to consider embodiment at the mundane level of food production, consumption and super-exploitation outside wage labour, the concept metaphor of inscription will have to be rethought as habitation. ... oppression occurs in the very crafting of the materiality of our bodies. (Pheng Cheah 1994: 138f.)

For Pheng Cheah this body of the other cannot be accommodated within an academic feminism informed by the 'whiteness', the linguisticism and the privilege of the psychoanalytical and poststructuralist narrative.

This is why it has been suggested that performance (Parker/Sedgewick 1995; Threadgold 1997), grounded in its theatrical senses, where it will not allow the elisions of the body that performativity permits, may need to be brought together with performativity in trying to deal with the complex ways in which bodies and texts fold into one another, crafting and shaping the materiality of texts and of bodies. To perform in theatre contexts, or indeed in the contexts of everyday life, for which theatre here becomes a metaphor, is always to struggle with the substance, the matter, of the body. Ethnographies of theatrical rehearsal offer one place for doing fieldwork on the way repeated acts congeal over time to produce a disciplined performance of the body, a believable habitus (Threadgold 1997). To remember that may remind us of the 'parasitic' presence of the theatre in Austin's work. It certainly points to the difficulties and the unresolved issues in Butler's work despite the readiness with which the term performativity has been co-opted in cultural studies, CDA and elsewhere.

 

Conclusions

In a sense then we are back with Barker/Galasinski's (2001) argument that we need empirical work to test the metaphors and narratives of critical theory. However we do not just need to rethink talk as text rather than evidence. We also need to think of it as embodied, located in space/time, tied into institutional and community practices and knowledges, dialoguing with other textual practices, mediating power relations and the relations of ruling, calling out for ethnography as well as CDA and maybe needing to be analysed in quantitative as well as qualitative ways.

The work of Luke (1992) and of Kamler et al (1994) is exemplary of ways in which Bourdieu's notion of the habitus: 'as political mythology realised, embodied, turned into a permanent disposition, a durable way of standing, speaking, walking and thereby of feeling and thinking' - can be used along with Foucault and critical linguistics/discourse analysis to explore in an ethnographic setting the issues that concerned Butler. They use these tools to carefully observe and analyse the processes (linguistic, corporeal, spatial, visual and etc.) by which the bodies of little girls and boys become gendered in early literacy classrooms. The critical factor here is that the reiteration of gender norms is able to be specified and analysed and modes of intervention can therefore be planned to effect change. We do not have to rely on the vagaries of iteration or on texts wandering about on their own looking for signatures.

Versions of CDA (and I define this here in the way van Dijk does above as a set of creative potentials for working with, not a fixed method) in contexts like this make it possible to see what is happening at a level of detail that the poststructuralist categories cannot accomplish because of the levels of abstraction at which they work. CDA is also entirely compatible with ethnographic work in the places where the habitus is being formed. Detailed work on and with linguistic and textual structure actually produces agency for the researcher. Understanding the minutely detailed ways in which bodies are crafted and learn to perform can clarify the sites for intervention and even begin to predict the effects of political action. Of course the Derridean critique also holds good: the unexpected and the unpredictable may happen, but then the detail provides other alternatives for new kinds of action.

In addition, linguistic work on the poststructuralist categories, of the kind we have explored above certainly shows the effects of iterability, but makes them also subject to intervention and political action. If for example, intertextual categories are always used 'whole', unanalysed, as they tend to be in certain kinds of analyses - 'here there is a discourse of race', 'there a genre embedded in another genre' - they can only be described and identified. Analyse them in fine detail, figure out how they work, think about how they are institutionally supported and reproduced and what effects they have on bodies, on the organisation of space and social interaction, for example, and you begin to have some tools for intervening at the most unconsciously articulated levels of text. These are where the huge stabilities of discourse are hardest to unsettle. You also begin to understand the narratives, discourses and myths which form the habitus. In fact iterativity and citation, as defined by Derrida and Butler, seem to provide some of the best arguments there are for using forms of critical discourse analysis in cultural studies work. However, it seems to me that the best work will constantly bring new theories and new readings of old ones together with the doing of critical linguistic work. It is only when such work is constantly informed by and challenged by difficult theory that it will continue to be creative and productive.

In what I have discussed above here are many different kinds of critical reading practices, using many different tools and languages. We might call them different genres of reading. Critical discourse analysis cannot do all the things all these different kinds of practice - and many others we have not discussed - can contribute. CDA shares a politics with most of these practices. They can be brought together constructively or we may just have to allow that there is more than one form of critical reading practice, analysis, which can intervene in social practices to produce social change in the ways in which it is claimed that CDA can do. We must acknowledge the centrality of the embodied subject and the need to theorise, and find ways of changing, bodies, social geographies, practices as well as texts. I would like to see students and scholars able to use as many modes of critical reading as possible. But I would like to see them used from long and serious engagement with the primary texts of disciplines like sociology, anthropology, history, geography and the critical theories and traditions which inform them and shape them, not from anthologised and necessarily reduced versions. I would like to see this happen in cultural studies and in critical discourse analysis. If it did, CDA would certainly evolve and change some more and so would cultural studies. I have always argued that the more places you have from which to look, the more you are likely to see and the more you are likely to unsettle the habits of your own corporeal ways of knowing.

We might for example even move beyond the very Western traditions of knowledge I have just named and begin to learn from cultural and other differences in our midst to produce new versions of CDA that really acknowledge the difference of those to whom we teach it and those whose oppression is the subject of our labours. What does it help an asylum seeker that I perform an intelligent and politically committed analysis of her discourse? It will only help if I can use it to influence policies which determine the material conditions of asylum seeking. What if Kirby (1997) is right and the materiality of the body at the scene of writing is itself articulate, if biology can speak and write? Perhaps then the most radical kind of critical discourse analysis would involve teaching people that their biology, the habituated body, can write and speak, that they can write and speak themselves differently, and providing the training, the spaces and the opportunities for them to do that. Sometimes though it is the right to food and water that matters most, that crafts and shapes the body more potently than any writing.

The politics of writing, writing the body, critical discourse analysis and cultural studies, all of these are different to politics which intervene in corporeal and othered spaces, but as Butler's and others' struggles with language and discourse show, they can never be entirely separate. That is why we must do more work on the relationships between the two, more work on understanding how much context matters, more work on making the languages in which we do it accessible to those who need them, and more work on learning how to see the world from other places than the privileged ones we tend to occupy. Only then will the worlds we inhabit change our theories and methods to the point where they may actually produce the social change they theorise and to which they make claim.

 

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Linguistik online 14, 2/03

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