Kazakhstan as a part of the Mongol Empire and Genghis Khan ulus

1. Central Asia before the Mongolian invasion

What ethno-political structures were represented on the political map of Central Asia before the Mongolian invasion?

According to numerous writing sources in the XII-the beginning of the XIII-centuries the a territory of modern Kazakhstan was occupied by a lot of state unions of Turkic speaking tribes-of the Qipchaq, Kangly (Qanglis), Karluks, Naimans. And also there were two empires on the territory of Central Asia – the Kara Khitai Empire and The Khwarezmid Empire.

The main part of the territory of present Kazakhstan was a part of possessions of the Qipchaqs. Beginning with the end of the XIth century Kazakhstan¢s Steppe from the Irtysh River to the Volga was inhabited by the Qipchaqs. The historical role of the Qipchaqs, peculiarities of their political structure and socio-economic development and also on the international arena has been studied earlier. That¢s why not paying attention on these questions, we will consider the political map of other regions of present Kazakhstan before the Mongols¢ invasion.

As you know the territory of present South-Eastern, Southern Kazakhstan and territories of Maverannahr entered the structure of the Kara Khitais possessions. The borders of this Empire were not constant,they often changed. After the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907 AD the Chinese ruling class retreated from south and control of Northern China fell into hands of non-Chinese people. In 916 the Khitais - a semi-nomadic tribe from southern Mongolia, conquered Northern China and established the Liao Dynasty of northern China. In the early XIIth century the Khitais were overthrown by the Jurchids, who replaced the Liao Dynasty with the Jin Dynasty. Some time in the mid of the XIIth century the Tanghuts, a Tibetan people, established the Xi Xia Empire in western China. Meanwhile the Chinese rulers established the Song Dynasty in the south of the Yellow River (Huang He) in 906. Thus, during the rise of the Genghis Khan China was divided into three states.

After the Khitais were overthrown from Northern China, a part of their nobility fled westward to the south of Lake Balkhash. There they established the Kara Khitai Empire. The west of the Kara Khitai was the Khwarazmian Empire of Persia, which formed in the late of the XIIth century.

The formation of the Kara Khitai Empire was caused by the invasion of nomadic tribes from Central Asia. It was founded by the kidans who escaped from Chzhurzhen expansions. In the memory of Lyo Kidan Empire they named. The capital of the Si Lyo – Balacagun was situated on the Chu river. Developed agricultural areas of Fergana and Maverannahr entered the State structure. By the end of the XIIth century began weakening Si Lyo¢s power. In 1210 the Kara Khitais were defeated by the The Khwarezmid ¢s army. As a result Maverannahr was separated from the Kara Khitai Empire. That period the Naimans¢ ruler Kuchluk who had escaped from Genghis Khan took his refuge at the Kara Khitai ruler and even had got married his daughter.

Having gartered the Naimans, who had escaped from the Mongols Kuchluk began raiding the Kara Khitai ¢s territories. Soon he managed to take the control over all the Gurhan¢s possessions. Formally Gurhan remained on the throne but the real governor became Kuchluk (as an adviser of Kara Khitai ¢s governor). After Gurhan¢s death, power officially passed to Kuchluk who ruled till the Mongol invasion 1215.

In the Northern part of Semirech'e there was the Karluk¢s small possession the Muslim rules of which had the title of aprslan-khan - traditional for one of the Karahanid¢s brunch. The Karluk¢s principality of the Northen Semirech'e was the vassal of the Karakitaev.

In the Northern part of Semirech'e (also Dzhetysu; from Kazakh zheti [“seven”] and su [“water”]) was the Karluk¢s small possession the Muslim rules of which had the title of arslan-khan- traditional for one of the Qarakhanid¢s brunch. The Karluk¢s principality of the Northen Semirech'e was the Kara Khitai ¢s vassal.

Before the Mongol invasion territories between the Talas, Chu and Issyk Kul lake were occupied by the Kanglys. Base in the Syr-Darya with it¢s fortified cities and adjoining areas, and also Maverannahr with oblast adjoining to it belonged to Khorezm Shah Muhammad.

In the ethnogenetic processes of the beginning of the II millennium the important role played the Naimans and the Kireits. As the analyses of the Kazakh genealogical legends show, they entered the Kazakh Nationality. But their appearance on the territory of Kazakhstan was connected with the escape from Genghis Khan at the beginning of the XIIIth century.

If to speak about economic development of Kazakhstan before the Mongol invasion two ways of life have been presented: nomadic and settled-agricultural. The center of settled civilization of Kazakhstan at that time was the South, especially Semirech'e.

The Xth-XIth centuries were the time of growth of cities in Kazakhstan both old – Otrar, Taraz, Isfidzhab, Kulan, Yangikent and new – Kayalik, Ashnas, Barlychkent. Just in the Ili valley in The Xth – XIIIth centuries appeared over 56 cities. Till the Mongolian invasion in the south of Kazakhstan and in Semirech'e widely spread the monetary trade. Two Monetary courts are known- Taraz and Isfidzhab.

In the second decade of the XIIIth century cities of Southern Kazakhstan passed under Khwarezmia ¢s power. Khwarezm has been known also as Chorasmia, Khwarezmia, Khwarizm, Khwarazm, Khorezm, Khoresm, Khorasam, Harezm, Horezm, and Chorezm. But Semirech'e was under the Kara Khitai ¢s power and their vassals. Spiritual culture of Kazakhstan a component of which was religion, corresponded to the high level of economic relations.

Worship of the Heaven (Tengri) and the Earth-water (Jern-sou), and also, a female deity to Umaj-patroness of the centre and children was a basis of religion of the Turkic people. Along with actually Turkic beliefs among the population were spread other religious systems: the Buddhism, The Manichaean religion, Christianity and Islam. Especially at the end of the XIIth-beginning of the XIII centuries Islam role in system of beliefs of the population amplified. As a whole, it should be noted, that religious notions of the settled and nomadic population were characterized by variety. In the X-XII centuries on the territory of Kazakhstan and Central Asia in the conditions of similarities of economic-cultural types, languages and life likeness of the Qipchaqs, Kanglus, Karluks, Kara Khitais, Naimans and Kireits took place the process of ethnic consolidation of these tribes and tribal unions, main knots of ethogenesis, formed historical preconditions of formating nations. At such level of social and economic, ethno political and cultural development found the people of Kazakhstan invasion of the Genghis Khan.

The rise of Genghis Khan. The rise of Genghis Khan was one of the most dramatic in history, and has hardly, if ever, been paralleled in history. No one rose from such a low position: as a part of a family eating roots and rodents for survival; and yet end up achieving so much in the end.

Much of what we know about Genghis' early life comes from the famous Mongol script, The Secret History of the Mongols, which is a record of Mongol history written in 1240. The bulk of the Secret History describes Genghis Khan's early life and is written with numerous dialogues between characters. When the Persian historian Rashid ad-Din wrote The History of the Tribes, he made numerous contradictions with the Secret History, which he had access to when he wrote his script. However, the contradictions are centered on details, and there is a good agreement between the two sources on the general flow of the story.

The Khuritai of 1206 – Building the Empire. In the year of the Tiger, 1206, the whole steppes stood watching as the great Khuriltai (assembly) was being held and the implied enthronement of Genghis Khan as emperor of the steppes. As emperor of the steppes, Genghis wanted to ensure the longevity of his empire. It is somewhat of a daunting task, as not so long ago his empire had been a chaotic battleground of many nomadic powers. To do this, Genghis created a system that would stress the unity of the empire, and would wipe out tendencies towards local tribal authorities. The entire population was divided into 95 military units, each responsible for maintaining 1000 warriors. Each of these units had a commander personally assigned by Genghis Khan. During times of war, each commander was expected to effectively assemble a thousand men. Failure to do so would mean removal from office and a new commander from the thousand would be elected. To ensure availability of warriors, every male at the age of fifteen were required for military duty.

Genghis also created various offices of power within his empire, including imperial administrators and the chief justice. Furthermore, he decreed a number of specific laws, including the toleration of religion, exemption of priests in taxation, the prohibition of contaminating running water, and death penalty for crimes such as robbery, adultery, military desertion, and continual bankruptcy of merchants. All of these laws and decrees made by Genghis Khan were compiled into one piece, the Great Yasa. While Genghis is often thought to be a vicious barbarian, there is no doubt that he was also a brilliant statesman.

The new military superstructure ensured a stable and militaristic society, but was not enough to conquer the world. Genghis went on to make several military reforms, including a decimal organization of the army (from units of 10 to 10,000 men), standardization of equipment, a strict system of regularly performed military drill, and a strict system of military laws. All of these regulations installed a sense of unity and maximum discipline to men who already had a lifetime of experience in horsemanship and archery. Every man in the Mongol army was both a lifetime warriors and a soldiers fighting as a part of a group -something rarely achieved before contemporary militaries. The Mongol army soon became the most disciplined, experienced, and fear less force the world had yet to see.

Genghis Khan invasion. Throughout history of the steppes have always been a stage for continuous struggle between various nomadic groups. As time passed certain groups were able to rise and gain mastery over the others. However, few have ever been able to create a lasting empire. In the late XIIth century, various Turkish and Mongol-Tungusic tribes roamed the steppes of Mongolia. The Naimans and Kereyids¢ tribes controlled western Mongolia, the Oirats controlled the north areas, the Merkids controlled the south of Lake Baikal, and the Tartars the east of the River Kerulen. The Mongols were located between the Tartars and the Merkids. These groups are referred to as Tribes. Within these tribes are divisions called clans. Note that the clans within a tribe are not always united, as with the case of the Mongols during the rise of Genghis Khan.

It must also be noted that the common phrase saying that Genghis Khan "united the Mongol tribes" is a misleading statement. This error comes from the lack of distinguishment between Mongols and non-Mongols and between "tribes" and "clans". He united both the Mongol Clans (that used to be a united tribe) and other "non-Mongol" tribes such as the Naimans, (whose clans were united, unlike the Mongols). The nomadic nobility supported the khan only under a condition if war – a constant source of profit would not only stop but on the contrary, would extend. Therefore Chingiz-khan became on a way of external conquests.

He had a plan – invasion of the whole Eurasia, to the last sea where the Mongolian horses¢s hoofs would reach.

In 1207-1211 people of Siberia and Easten Turkestan were subdued by the Mongols. They were – the Yakuts, the Oirats, the Byruats, The Kirgiz, The Uigurs. In that period the Mongols undertook a campaign against The Tangut¢s State Xī Xià, which was finally defeated in 1227. In 1211 the Mongols began attacking the Jurchens¢s State – The Jīn Dynasty, which was situated on the Northern Part of China. Here the Mongols destroyed more than 90 cities and in 1215 siezed Beijing. As a result by the 1217– all the territories to the North from the Hanher river had been conquered by the Mongols.

The Mongols in their aggressive policy which was successfully realized during the XIIIth centure had a plan of a campaign to Kazakstan and Central Asia. It would open them the way to Eastern Europe and Fore Asia. It was the reason why Genghis Khan paid great attentions on that campaign and prepared carefully.

After conquering Eastern Turkestan and Semirech'e the way to Southern Kazakhstan and Central Asia was opened. The formal casus belli was the events of so-called ‘Utar cathastrophe’. Genghis lost interest in the war in China and instead, turned his attention towards the west. In 1218 he sent his general Chepe westward and conquered the Kara Khitai Empire. But the real issue was with the huge Kwarazmian Empire in Perisa. Hostilities broke out when the Kwarazm Shah attacked a Mongol caravan and humiliated Genghis 's ambassadors by burning their beards. Since Genghis sent the ambassadors for the purpose of making peace, he was outraged. Genghis prepared for the largest operation, he had yet performed and assembled a force that totaled around 90-110,000 men. The total numerical strength of the Kwarazm shah was two to three times greater, but Genghis ' army was better disciplined, and most of all, better led.

The campaign began in September 1219 from the banks of the Irtysh. Accoding to the sources Genghis led his the army from the Irtysh to the Syr-Daria across the Semirech'e. Approaching Utar Genghis Khan divided his Army. One part headed by Chagatai and Ogedei was left for the siege of Otrar. The second part headed by Dzhuchi he sent to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, the third troops subjugated the towns in upper reaches of the Syr Darya. The main forces of the Mongols headed by himself went towards Buhara.

In 1219, Ginghis's sons Chagatai and Ogedei set out to attack the city of Utar, located to the east of the Aral Sea. Meanwhile, Chingis' general Chepe, marched southwestward to protect the left flank during the operation. The main attack, however, was led by Ginghis Khan himself, who together with general Subedei, marched through the Kizil Kum desert and outflanked the Kwarazmiam forces. The plan was that the Kizil Kum desert was considered impractical to cross, which made it a great opportunity to surprise the enemy. Ginghis and his army disappeared into the desert and suddenly, out of nowhere, he appeared at the city of Bukhara. The city garrison was stunned, and was quickly defeated. Next Ginghis marched towards Samarkand, the capital of the Khwarezmian Empire. The magnificent city was heavily fortified and had a garrison of 110,000 men, which vastly outnumbered Ginghis' besieging army. The city was expected to be able to hold out for months, but on March 19, 1220 its walls were breached in just ten days. After the fall of Samarkand, the Mongols overran much of the Empire. The destruction was profound. Cities were leveled and populations were massacred. At the Merv city, accounts described an execution of 700,000. At Samarkand, women were raped and sold into slavery. Devastation was so great that the Kwarazmian Empire itself was nearly wiped away from history. The conquest of the Kwarazm also created another remarkable event. After his defeat, the Khwarezm Shah fled to the west and Subedei followed in pursue with a force of 20,000 men. The Khwarezm Shah died, however, but Subedei went further. He brought his army to the north and defeated a heavily outnumbering Russian and Cuman army at the Khalka River. He went further and attack the Volga Bulgars before returning back. As said by the famed history Gibbons, Subedei's expedition was one of the most daring expeditions in history, unlikely to be repeated ever again.

During the entire campaign, the Khwarezm Shah failed to assemble an army to fight the Mongols on the battlefield. The Khwarezm strategy relied on its extensive city garrisons that outnumbered the besieging Mongol armies. This of course, failed in every way. The only well organized resistance against the Mongols came from Jalal ad-Din, who after the fall of Samarkand, organized a resistance force on the territory of modern day Afghanistan. At Parwan, he defeated a Mongol force led by one of Ginghis' adopted son, making it the only Mongol defeat in the entire campaign. Genghis chases after Jalal ad-Din and destroyed his army at the Indus River. The defeat of Jalal ad-Din meant the consolidation of rule of Transoxania. However, the southern parts of the Khwarezmian Empire were left unconquered and later turned into a collection of Independent states. It is said that the Mongols decided not to advance when the sight of a unicorn demoralized their vanguard.

At the age approaching sixty, Genghis Khan' health was at a decline. He sought the legendary Daoist monk Changchun for the elixir to Immortality. His wish did not come true, as Changchun had no magical elixir, but Genghis praised his wisdom and the two became good friends. Following the meeting with the Daoist monk, Genghis returned to the administration side of his objectives. Unlike Attila the Hun and Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan realized the importance of a smooth succession after his death. Before he completed his conquest of the Khwarezmian Empire, he had already carefully chosen his son Ogedei to be his successor. After Genghis returned to Mongolia to finish establish the administration structure of his empire, all the matters were in good order, except for the Tanguts. The Tangut Xi Xia Empire had long been defeated by the Mongols, but became more of a tributary rather than being annexed. However, the Tanguts had stopped complying with terms while Chingis was away. In 1226, Genghis Khan led his army against Xi Xia and captured its capital.

In 1221 with subjugating of the Khwarezm the conquest of Central Asia was finished. By 1225 the main Mongolian forces had left for Mongolia. Only the30-thousand group of Zhebe and Subedeja continued the war in the west.

2. The Kazakh lands as a part of Mongolian uluses

Genghis Khan, according to Dzhuvejni, even in his lifetime distributed special territories named yurts, to each of his sons. In research literature the territories distributed among sons by Genghis Khan is accepted to name apanages or uluses.

The territory of Kazakhstan entered the structure of three Mongolian uluses:

the most part of steppe spaces of the north of the country and the areas from the upper reaches of the Irtysh to Alakul lake and farther to the West to Or and Syr Darya Rivers entered Juji¢s ulus.

Southern and Southeast Kazakhstan entered Chaghatai¢s ulus. Besides, outside of modern Kazakhstan that ulus included the following territories: East Turkestan and Maverannahr.

Northeast Kazakhstan was a part of Ugedeja¢s ulus, which included the territory of Western Mongolia, the area of the Upper Irtysh and Tarbagatai.

During Chingiz-khan¢s lifetime the lands alloted to his sons, were for them only served as source of income for them, but nevertheless they remained themselves subordinated to the head of the empire. After his death the situation had changed. Extensiveness of the Mongolian power, remoteness of a residence of uluses from theball-empire the centre on Orkhon conducted possessors to that the local authorities became the valid power only.

The dynasties began introducing an appanage appanage system, transition to the real power in uluses to the descendants of Ginghis Khan¢s sons raised aspiration among the Chingizid uluses to make their dynasty completely independent, and their uluses Independent possession.

Date: 2015-12-11; view: 1510