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Figure 2-26. The Ouchi illusionthe central circle appears to float above the other part of the design
Here the central disk of vertical bars appears to move separately from the rest of the pattern, floating above the background of horizontal bars. You can increase the effect by jiggling the book. Your fixational eye movements affect the two parts of the pattern in different ways. The dominant direction of the bars, either horizontal or vertical, means that only one component of the random movements stands out. For the "background" of horizontal bars, this means that the horizontal component of the movements is eliminated, while for the "foreground" disk the vertical component of the movements is eliminated. Because the fixational movements are random, the horizontal and vertical movements are independent. This means that the two parts of the pattern appear to move independently, and your visual system interprets this as meaning that there are two different objects, one in front of the other. Peripheral drift The rotating snakes illusion (Figure 2-25) uses a different kind of structure to co-opt these small random eye movements, one that relies on differential brightness in parts of the pattern (color isn't essential to the effect3). To understand how changes in the brightness of the pattern create an illusion of motion in the periphery, see Figure 2-27. Figure 2-27. The peripheral drift illusion, in which the spokes appear to rotate in the corner of your eye4
In this simple pattern, the difference in the shading of the figure creates the impression of illusory movement. It makes use of the same principles as the rotating snakes, but it's easier to work out what's happening. Brighter things are processed faster in the visual system (due to the stronger response they provoke in neurons [Hack #11] ), so where the spokes meet, as one fades out into white and meets the black edge of another, the white side of the edge is processed faster that the black edge. The difference in arrival times is interpreted as a movement but only in the peripheral vision where your resolution is low enough to be fooled. The illusion of motion occurs only when the information first hits the eye, so you need to "reset" by blinking or quickly shifting your eyes. It works really well with two patterns next to each other, because your eye flicks between the two as the illusory motion in the periphery grabs your attention. Try viewing two copies of this illusion at the same time; open http://viperlib.york.ac.uk/Pimages/Lightness-Brightness/Shading/8cycles.DtoL.CW.jpg in two browser windows on opposite sides of your desktop. How It Works You are now equipped to understand why Professor Kitaoka's rotating snakes illusion (Figure 2-25) works. Because the shape has lots of repeating parts, it is hard for your visual system to lock on to any part of the pattern to get a frame of reference. The shading of the different parts of the squares creates illusory motion that combines with motion from small eye movements that are happening constantly. The effect is greatest in your peripheral vision, where your visual resolution is most susceptible to the illusionary motion cue in the shading of the patterns. Your eyes are attracted by the illusory motion, so they flit around the picture and the movement appears everywhere apart from where you are directly looking. The constant moving of your eyes results in a kind of reset, which triggers a new interpretation of the pattern and new illusory motions and prevents you from using consistency of position across time to figure out that the motion is illusory. In Real Life Professor Kitaoka's web page (http://www.ritsumei.ac.jp/~akitaoka/index-e.html) contains many more examples of this kind of anomalous motion and his scientific papers in which he explores the mechanisms behind them. We are constantly using the complex structure of the world to work out what is really moving and to discount movements of our eyes, heads, and bodies. These effects show just how artificial patterns have to be to fool our visual system. Patterns like this are extremely unlikely without human intervention. Professor Kitaoka has spotted one example of anomalous motion similar to his rotating snakes illusion that may not have been intentional. The logo of the Society For Neuroscience, used online (http://web.sfn.org), appears to drift left and right in the corner of their web site! Now you know what to look for, maybe you will see others yourself. End Notes 1. Martinez-Conde, S., Macknik, S. L., & Hubel, D. H. (2004). The role of fixational eye movements in visual perception. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 229-240. 2. Figure reprinted from: Ouchi, H. (1977). Japanese Optical and Geometrical Art: 746 Copyright-Free Designs. New York: Dover. See also http://mathworld.wolfram.com/OuchiIllusion.html. 3. Olveczky, B., Baccus, S., & Meister, M. (2003). Segregation of object and background motion in the retina. Nature, 423, 401-408. 4. Faubert, J., & Herbert, A. (1999). The peripheral drift illusion: A motion illusion in the visual periphery. Perception, 28, 617-622. Figure reprinted with permission from Pion Limited, London. |
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Hack 31. Minimize Imaginary Distances
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Hack 32. Explore Your Defense Hardware
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Hack 33. Neural Noise Isnt a Bug; Its a Feature
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Chapter 3. Attention Section 3.1. Hacks 34-43 Hack 34. Detail and the Limits of Attention Hack 35. Count Faster with Subitizing Hack 36. Feel the Presence and Loss of Attention Hack 37. Grab Attention Hack 38. Don't Look Back! Hack 39. Avoid Holes in Attention Hack 40. Blind to Change Hack 41. Make Things Invisible Simply by Concentrating (on Something Else) Hack 42. The Brain Punishes Features that Cry Wolf Hack 43. Improve Visual Attention Through Video Games |
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3.1. Hacks 34-43 It's a busy world out there, and we take in a lot of input, continuously. Raw sense data floods in through our eyes, ears, skin, and more, supplemented by memories and associations both simple and complex. This makes for quite a barrage of information; we simply haven't the ability to consider all of it at once. How, then, do we decide what to attend to and what else to ignore (at least for now)? Attention is what it feels like to give more resources over to some perception or set of perceptions than to others. When we talk about attention here, we don't mean the kind of concentration you give to a difficult book or at school. It's the momentary extra importance you give to whatever's just caught your eye, so to speak. Look around the room briefly. What did you see? Whatever you recall seeinga picture, a friend, the radio, a bird landing on the windowsillyou just allocated attention to it, however briefly. Or perhaps attention isn't a way of allocating the brain's scarce processing resources. Perhaps the limiting factor isn't our computational capacity at all, but, instead, a physical limit on action. As much as we can perceive simultaneously, we're able to act in only any one way at any one time. Attention may be a way of throwing away information, of narrowing down all the possibilities, to leave us with a single conscious experience to respond to, instead of millions. It's hard to come up with a precise definition of attention. Psychologist William James,1 in his 1890 The Principles of Psychology, wrote: "Everyone knows what attention is." Some would say that a more accurate and useful definition has yet to been found. That said, we can throw a little light on attention to see how it operates and feels. The hacks in this chapter look at how you can voluntarily focus your visual attention [Hack #34], what it feels like when you do (and when you remove it again) [Hack #36], and what is capable of overriding your voluntary behavior and grabbing attention [Hack #37] automatically. We'll do a little counting [Hack #35] too. We'll also test the limits of shifting attention [Hack #38] and [Hack #39] and run across some situations in which attention lets you down [Hack#40] and [Hack#41]. Finally, we'll look at a way your visual attention capacity can be improved [Hack #43] . 3.1.1. End Note 1. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy has a good biography of William James (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/james). |
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Hack 34. Detail and the Limits of Attention
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Hack 35. Count Faster with Subitizing
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Date: 2015-12-11; view: 1111 |