REALIZATION OF CONTEXTUAL MEANINGS OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

Literature

Among the famous writers are Henry Longfellow (a poet), Theodore Dreiser, Mark Twain, Jack London, Ernest Hemingway, O’Henry, Salinger.

Science, technology

The most famous inventors are Robert Fulton (the steamboat), Samuel Morse (the telegraph), Christopher Sholes (the typewriter), Alexander Graham Bell (the telephone), Thomas Alva Edison (the phonograph, the lightbulb, the motion picture camera), George Eastman (the roll-film camera), Nikola Tesla (alternating current, AC motor, radio), Wright brothers (the airplane), Bill Cates (a founder of the Microsoft Corporation).

Politics, government

George Washington is the first president of the USA. Abraham Lincoln is one of the greatest presidents who freed the slaves and united the country. John Fitzgerald Kennedy is the youngest President of the USA.

«Founding Fathers» is a group of political leaders who headed the fight against the British Grown and played a prominent role in forming the USA. Among them are George Washington (the 1st President), James Madison («the father of the Constitution»), Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson (the author of the original draft of the Declaration of Independence).

Martin Luther King the leader of the civil rights movement who fought against racial discrimination.

23. What are the characteristics of the national and its people?

- American s are generally optimistic.

- Americans believe that people can control their own destiny.

- Americans are future-oriented. They are sure that «time is money» so it must not be wasted. They consider a rapid rate of change (the same as improvement) as normal.

- Americans are action-oriented. They believe in keeping busy and productive at all times – even on vacation. They have become very proficient at problem solving and decision making.

- Individualism and the equality of all people is important in social orientation for Americans.

- Among American values are self-reliance and hard work.

24. What is national currency?

The United States dollar (sign $, code USD) is the official currency of the United States. It is divided into 100 cents.

Paper money comes in $ 1, $5, $10, $50 and $100 denominations.

Americans use the following coins (cents): 1¢ (called Penny), 5 ¢ (Nickel), 10 ¢ (Dime), 25 ¢ (Quarter), 50 ¢ (Half Dollar), 100 ¢ (Dollar coin).

25. What system of weights and measures is used?

The modern metric system is not yet used. United States customary system. (American system) similar to the British Imperial units is used in the US.

Liquids are measured by the gallon (=3.785 liters), weight by the ounce (= 28.35 grams) and pound (=453.59 grams), length by the inch (=2.54 centimeters), foot (=30.48 centimeters), and yard (=0.91 meters).

Temperature in the US is normally displayed in degrees Fahrenheit (32⁰ F=0⁰ C, 68⁰ F=20⁰ C).

Sources

1. Bordman, Martha. In the USA. – Chancerel International Publishers. Лицензионное издание: издательство «Титул», 2000. – 105 с.

2. The USA: geography, history, education, painting (a reader). Книга для чтения на английском языке. / Сост.: В.В. Ощенкова. – М.: «Лист», 1997. – 192 с.

REALIZATION OF CONTEXTUAL MEANINGS OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

The definite article when endowed with the lexical meaning in a sentence or passage can have various realizations in Ukrainian. It is expedient to begin with the most common of them which may be the following:

1) as the demonstrative pronoun цей (ця, це, ці):

What his sister has seen in the man was beyond him. (J.London)¹

Thethought was fire in him. Martin came back and looked at the beady eyes ~ sneering ....

Що його сестра знайшла у цьому чоловікові, він не міг збагнути.

Ця думка пекла його, мов вогонь. Мартін опритомнів і, глянувши в ці злі, хитрі очі....

2) as the demonstrative pronouns такий (той, та, те, ті), той самий, (саме той, та сама), такий самий:

«Sometimes there is the impression that the IMF is on the same side of the barricades with the forces which are out to reverse the course of development back to Soviet times.» Ukrainian president said. (Kyiv Post)

Prime Minister's dismissal had been rumored from the date of his appointment. (Ibid.)

But surely Ruth did not understand it, he concluded. How could she, living the refined life she did?

He was amazed at the man's sympathy with the life and his incisive psychology.

The fellow behind us in the crowd was talking again. (E.Caldwell)

....and when I could see again, the fellow who stayed with me was dragging me down the street. (Ibid.)

«Іноді створюється таке враження, що МВФ стоїть на одному боці з тими самими силами, які намагаються повернути курс розвитку до радянських часів», - заявив президент України.

Чутки про зняття прем'єр-міністра поширювалися від самого початку його призначення.

Рут навряд чи розуміла цей твір. Та і як вона могла зрозуміти, живучи таким витонченим, яку неї, життям?

Його вразила така любов цієї людини до життя і її психологічне проникнення.

Той самий хлопець із натовпу позад нас тепер озвався знову.

...а коли мені розвиднілось в очах, саме той хлопець, що зостався зі мною, тяг мене за собою.

3) as the possessive pronoun /"/', їхні, свій (своя, своє, свої):

Theroom was situated over the laundry...

«Why don't you eat?» he demanded, as Martin dipped dolefully into thecold, half cooked oatmeal mush.

...Mr. Higginbotham sneered throughout mealtime at the«literary» person they had discovered in the family.

Його кімната була/ знаходилась над пральнею...

«Чому ти не їси?» - запитав він, бачачи, як неохоче Мартін копирсає своюнедоварену вівсяну кашу.

...містер Хіггїнботем під час обіду стільки кепкував з «писаки», що виявився у їхній родині.

4) as the identifying pronoun весь, вся, все/цілий:

Не looked up, and it seemed that theroom was lifting...

Theromance and beauty, and high vigour of thebooks were coming true.

Her trained ear detected theoveremphasis of the tyro...

«What the hell you guys blocking the street?» (E.Caldwell)

Він підвів голову і йому здалося, що вся кімната ходить ходором...

Вся романтика і краса, всі високі поривання, про які він читав у книжках, виявились правдою.

її витончене вухо враз вловило всі перебільшення новачка...

«Якого біса ви, волоцюги, запрудили всю вулицю?»

5) as the relative pronoun який (яка, яке, які):

Не caught himself imagining thewonder of a caress from such a hand, and flushed guiltily...

She did not know theactual fire of love.

Він подумав, яку насолоду повинні приносити пестощі такою рукою, і зніяковіло зашарівся...

Вона не знала, яке то справжнє полум'я коханая.

6) as the indefinite pronoun якийсь (якась, якесь), певний:

For the moment the great gulf that separated them then was bridged. He was played by thelow comedian, who had intro-

Ha якусь мить через велику безодню, що розділяла їх, був наведений міст. Його роль виконував такий собі комік з

Інша:

But theman did not seem to know of the content of the great mind.

Thetoil meant nothing to him.

...which was new to him, for of thewomen he had known -that was the only way he thought.

Та, очевидно, сам бібліотекар нічого не знав про творчість цієї великої голови.

Сама собоюпраця нічого не важила для нього.

.... і це було нове для нього, бо про іншихжінок, яких він знав, він інакше взагалі не думав.

contextual meaning):

Martin Eden did not go out to hunt for a job in the morning.

He had worked the day before in the basement and the money had been kept all the time. (E.Caldwell)

9) as a particle emphasizing or some other part of speech:

But the story was grand just the same, perfectly grand.

The man above us was talking to several persons in the crowd. (E.Caldwell)

The next afternoon, accompanied by Arthur, she arrived in the Morses carriage.

Мартін Іден не пішов наступногоранку шукати роботи.

Напередодні він також працював у підвалі фабрики і ще не витратив заробленігроші.

the attributive pronoun, numeral

А так цеоповідання -чудове, ну просто чудове.

А той чоловік над нами огризався до людей з натовпу/ сперечався з людьми з натовпу.

На другий жедень в супроводі Артура вона приїхала до нього в кареті Морзів.

10) very often when the noun in the sentence has another attribute the clearly explicit lexical meaning of the definite article remains superflous:

He lay where he had fallen, Він лежав, де впав, і звідти and from there he watched the спостерігав за чоловіком у

man in the red sweater. червоному светрі. (J.London)

Here the man in the red sweater may be translated as той чоловік у червоному светрі but the postpositive attribute у червоному (светрі) has a stronger force of definiteness than the prepositive lexically charged article. As a result, the meaning of the article remains implicit, though strongly felt.

Similarly in the sentence below where the lexically charged definite article is also suppressed by the attributive prepositional noun:

From the first mention of the 3 першої миті, як місіс

dance by Mrs. Cowperwood and Каупервуд та Анна заговорили

Anna, Ailen had been conscious про вечори з танцями, Ейлен

of a desire toward a more effec- закортіло блиснути (показати

tive presentation of herself than себе) ще яскравіше, ніж це їй

as yet. (T.Dreiser) вдавалося досі.

The definite article in the sentence above is substituted for the contextual noun вечори (з танцями) instead of ті танці as in the original sentence.

11) In many a case the definite article may point to thematic functioning of the noun, which is usually signalized by its initial position in the sentence and pointing to the core of the utterance presenting the basic, known already elements in the sentence:

The street lights were fewer Лампіонів на вулиці тепер

now. (J. Steinbeck) горіло менше.

The old man stared at the Старий з острахом дивився

open door. (Ibid.) на прочинені двері.

The night was getting colder А ніч усе холоднішала і

and more raw all the time, ставала щодалі вологішою/ і

(Е. Caldwell) ставало щодалі вологіше.

The dog had gone back to his Тут собака заходився знову

slow, spiritless barking, спроквола і неохоче

(J. Steinbeck) погавкувати.

They silently passed the stu- Повз майстерню вони

dio. (J. Fowels) пройшли мовчки.

The rheme, the new notional element in the utterance, is more frequently indicated in English by the indefinite article determining

the noun in the initial position. When translated into Ukrainian, however, the rhematic noun, as has long been noticed¹, occupies a terminating position in the sentence/clause (when the utterance is a composite sentence):

There was an old twostoreyТого року на Філдінґ Авеню ще

yellow houseon Fielding Av- стояв старий двоповерховий