agglutination – a grammatical process in which words are composed of a sequence of morphemes (meaningful word elements), each of which represents not more than a single grammatical category //http://www.britannica.com
alternations - a morphological process that uses morpheme-internal modifications to make new words or morphological distinctions e.g. goose -> geese, ring -> rang -> rung, teeth -> teethe
circumfixation – a morphological process characterized by simultaneous suffixing and affixing
incorporation - a morphological process by which several distinct semantic components are combined into a single word in a polysynthetic language
infixation – a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme attaches within a root or stem
inflection - the creation of different grammatical forms of words
reduplication - a morphological process of forming new words either by doubling an entire free (total reduplication) morpheme, or part of it (partial reduplication)
suffixation - a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is attached to the end of a stem
suppletion - a morphological process between forms of a word wherein one form cannot be phonologically or morphologically derived from the other. e.g. is -> was, go -> went; good -> better -> best
inner inflection – a morphological process when different forms of the word share only consonants and alternating vowels represent a grammatical category
b) Study examples from different languages and match them with morphological processes from 4 (a).
You (all) are among those who will not be able to be caused to become like Europeans.'
(2) Chichewa (the national language of Malawi)
Mkángo s-u-na-ka-ngo-wa-phwanya maûngu.
lion NEG-3SUBJ-PAST-go-just-6OBJ-smash pumpkins
The lion did not just go smash them, the pumpkins.'
(3) Tagalog (the national language of the Philippines)
tulong 'help'
t-um-ulong 'helped
bili 'buy'
b-um-ili 'bought'
hanap 'search'
h-um-anap 'searched'
(4) German
ge-kann-t 'known'
ge-läute-t 'rung'
ge-schüttel-t 'shaken'
ge-zeig-t 'shown'
(5) Arabic
katab 'to write'
kataba 'he wrote'
kutib 'has been written'
aktub 'be writing'
(6) Tagalog (the national language of the Philippines)
ROOT FUTURE
tawag 'call' ta-tawag 'will call'
takbo 'run' ta-takbo 'will run'
bisita 'visit' bi-bisita 'will visit'
bili 'buy' bi-bili 'will buy'
(7) English
fall fell
slide slid
strike struck
take took
give gave
swear swore
ride rode
(8) Somali
SINGULAR
PLURAL
árday
'student'
ardáy
'students
díbi
‘bull'
dibí
'bulls'
mádax
'head'
madáx
'heads'
túug
'thief
tuúg
'thieves'
Direct and Indirect Speech
NDIRECT STATEMENTS
Study the following pairs of sentences in Direct and Indirect Speech. Notice carefully the changes in personal and possessive pronouns. Indirect Speech is formed according to the Rule of the Sequence of Tenses. The verbs most commonly used to introduce the reported speech are: to tell, to say, to add, to notice, to remark, to explain, to inform, to remind, etc.
Form
DIRECT SPEECH
INDIRECT SPEECH
Jimmy said, "My brother is learning to drive."
(The Present Continuous Tense)
Jimmy said that his brother was
learning to drive.
(The Past Continuous Tense)
Nick said, "Sometimes 1 go home by tram."
(The Present Indefinite Tense)
Nick said that sometimes he went home by tram.
(The Past Indefinite Tense)
The teacher told John,
"You didn't write exercise two."
Frank said, "Ron fell down, but he didn't hurt himself." (The Past Indefinite Tense)
The teacher told John that he hadn't written exercise two.
Frank said that Ron had fallen down, but he hadn't hurt himself. (The Past Perfect Tense)
Bob said, "My uncle has just arrived
from Paris."
(The Present Perfect Tense)
Bob said that his uncle had just arrived from Paris.
(The Past Perfect Tense)
B. Use
1.The tense in reported speech normally ‘moves back’ Pronouns and possessive adjectives often change in reported speech:
▪ Sue said, ‘I am on holiday with my friend’. – She said that she was on holiday with her friend.
2.Note the past forms of the modal verbs: can – could; may – might. – Must – either doesn’t change or it takes the past form – had to – The past modals - could should – might –don’t change in reported speech:
▪ ‘I can swim.’ – He said he could swim.
▪ ‘We may go by train.’ – They told me they might go by train.
▪ ‘You could be right.’ – I said you could be right.
▪ ‘You should see the film.’ – They told me I should see the film.
▪ ‘I must go.’ – He said he must / had to go.
3.Say / tell. After – tell – we normally use a personal object to say who is told. We normally use – say – without a personal object. If we want to put a personal object with – say – we use ‘to’:
▪ I said I was going home.
▪ I told Sarah I was going home.
▪ I said to Sarah that I was going home.
4.Reported Special Questions. Tenses, adjectives, pronouns, etc in reported questions change in the same way as in reported statements. In reported special questions, we don’t use the auxiliary verb – do – (does, did):
▪ ‘What are you doing?’ – The policeman asked the men what they were doing.
▪ ‘How is your brother?’ – She asked how my brother was.
▪ ‘What do you want?’ – I asked what she wanted.
▪ ‘Where does he live?’ – They asked where he lived.
▪ ‘Why did you say that?’ – He asked why I had said that.
5.Reported General Questions. When there is no question word, we can use – if – or – whether – to introduce a reported question:
▪ ‘Are you cold?’ – I asked if he was cold.
▪ ‘Do you want a drink?’ – She asked if I wanted a drink.
▪ ‘Can you speak German?’ – They wanted to know whether I could speak German.
6.Infinitive in reported speech. We often report orders, requests, warnings, advice and invitations using the structure – verb + object + to infinitive:
▪ ‘Get out of my room.’ – She told the man to get out of her room.
▪ ‘Could you carry some bags, Mike?’ – I asked Mike to carry some bags.
▪ ‘Stay away from me’. – He warned them to stay away from him.
▪ ‘You should phone the police.’ – She advised him to phone the police.
▪ ‘Would you like to have dinner with us?’ – They invited me to have dinner with them.
In negative orders, promises we use – not to + infinitive:
▪ ‘Don’t touch my camera.’ – He told me not to touch his camera.
▪ ‘I won’t be late.’ – You promised not to be late.