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Stecher A, Vandamme B, van Roosendaal E, Schoysman R.

Intracytoplasmic injection of spermatids retrieved from testicular tissue: influence of testicular pathology, type of selected spermatids and oocyte activation. Hum Reprod 1997; 12:1203-1213.

OBSTRUCTIVE AZOOSPERMIA

Definition

Obstructive azoospermia means the absence of both spermatozoa and spermatogenetic cells in semen and post-ejaculate urine (see above Andrological investigations and spermatology) because of a complete obstruction of seminal ducts. Total obstruction of the seminal ducts is often accompanied by secretory dysfunction of the gonads. Permanent absence of spermatozoa in the semen causes male infertility.

Classification

Proximal obstruction

Intratesticular obstruction occurs in 15% of obstructive azoospermia [1].

Congenital forms (disjunction between rete testis and efferent ductules) are less frequent than those acquired (post-inflammatory or post traumatic obstructions). The latter are often associated with an obstruction of epididymis and vas deferens.

Epididymal obstruction is the most common cause of obstructive azoospermia, affecting 30-67% of infertile men with a serum FSH less than twice the upper limit of normal [1-4].

Congenital epididymal obstruction usually manifests as bilateral corpus and/or congenital bilateral agenesis of the vas deferens (CBAVD), which is associated with at least one mutation of the cystic fibrosis gene in 82% of cases [5]. This form is often accompanied by seminal vesicle agenesis (see above Genetic disorders in infertility). Other congenital forms of obstruction (dysjunction between efferent ductules and corpus epididymidis, agenesis/atresia of a short part of the epididymis) are very rare. Inborn forms also include chronic sinopulmonary infections (Young's syndrome) [6], where obstruction results from a mechanical blockage due to debris within the proximal epididymal lumen.

Among the acquired forms, those secondary to acute (gonococcal) and subclinical (e.g. chlamydial) epididymitis are considered to be most frequent [7,8] (see below Urogenital infections and disturbed male fertility). Acute or chronic traumas may result in epididymal damage [9].

Azoospermia caused by surgery is rare (e.g. after epididymal cyst removal in monorchid subjects). Epididymal obstruction secondary to long-lasting distal obstruction must be taken into account when repairing seminal ducts.

Proximal vas deferens obstruction is the most frequent cause of acquired obstruction following vasectomy for sterilization. About 1 % of these men ask for vasectomy reversal. Of those undergoing vasovasostomy, 5-10% develop epididymal blockage due to tubule rupture, making epididymovasostomy mandatory (see below Vasectomy and vasovasostomy).

Vasal obstruction may occur after herniotomy and, more rarely, may result from long-lasting compression onto

the vas caused by an inguinal hernia. A previously performed vasography, if made with accurate cannulation of the vas deferens, should not cause any local obstruction [10].

The most common congenital vasal obstruction is CBAVD, often accompanied by cystic fibrosis. Unilateral agenesis or partial defect is associated with contralateral seminal duct anomalies or renal agenesis in 80% and 26% of cases, respectively [11] (see above Genetic disorders in infertility).

Distal obstruction

Distal vas deferens obstruction includes CBAVD and involuntary vas excision during hernia surgery in early

childhood [12].

Ejaculatory duct obstruction is found in about 1-3% of obstructive azoospermia [1].

These obstructions can be classified as cystic or post-inflammatory. Cystic obstructions are usually congenital (Mullerian duct cyst or urogenital sinus/ejaculatory duct cysts) and are medially located in the prostate between the ejaculatory ducts. In urogenital sinus anomalies, one or both ejaculatory ducts empty into the cyst [13], while in Mullerian duct anomalies, ejaculatory ducts are laterally displaced and compressed by the cyst [14]. Paramedian or lateral intraprostatic cysts are Wolffian in origin and rarely found in clinical practice [15]. Post-inflammatory obstructions of the ejaculatory duct are usually secondary to acute, non-acute or chronic urethroprostatitis [16].

Congenital or acquired complete obstructions of the ejaculatory ducts are commonly associated with low semen volume, decreased or absent seminal fructose and acid pH. The seminal vesicles are usually dilated (anterior-posterior diameter > 15 mm) [16,17].

Functional obstruction of the distal seminal ducts: This might be attributed to local neuropathy [18]. Because of the vasographic patterns of ampullovesicular atony or of ejaculatory duct hypertony, this abnormality very often seems to be associated with urodynamic dysfunctions. Although it has been observed in patients suffering from juvenile diabetes and in polycystic kidney disease [19], no relevant pathology has been found in most cases described. Results of semen analysis vary between azoospermia, cryptozoospermia and severe oligoasthenozoospermia.

Date: 2016-06-12; view: 202