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Stylistic Use of Set ExpressionsProblems for discussion: The nature of set expressions 2. Cliché, Proverbs and Sayings Epigrams Quotations Allusions Key words:specific features of set expressions, proverbs and sayings, the stylistic device of epigram, generalizing function of epigrams, a quotation, quotations used accompanied by a reference to the author, the aim of use of a quotation, a cliché. 1. Alongside with separate words speakers use larger blocks consisting of more than one word - word combina?tions functioning as a whole. Word combinations similar to words are not created in speech but introduced into the act of communication ready-made. Such word combina?tions are called set expressions. A free phrase permits substitution of any of its ele?ments without semantic change: to cut bread, to cut chee?se, to eat bread. In semi-fixed combinations lexico-semantic li?mits are manifested in restrictions imposed upon types of words which can be used in a given pattern. For example, the pattern consisting of the verb go followed by a preposition and a noun with no article before it is used; go to school, go to market, go to court. Set expressions have their own specific features, which enhanced their stability. These are their euphonic, imaginative and connotative qualities. Many set expres?sions are distinctly rhythmical, contain alliteration, rhyme, imagery, contrast, are based on puns. No substitution of any elements is possible in the fol?lowing stereotyped (unchangeable) set expressions: the man in the street, heads or tails, first night, to hope for the best, busy as a bee, fair and square, tit for tat, to and fro. These euphonic and connotative qualities also prevent substitution for another linguistic reason - any substitu?tion would destroy the emphatic effect. There are several types of set expressions which will be dwelt on in this chapter. 2.The first type of set expressions is the cliche. A cliche is generally defined as an expression that has be?come hackneyed, trite. It has lost its precise meaning by constant reiteration; in other words it has become stereo?typed. There is always a contradiction between what is aimed at and what is actually attained. Examples of real cliches are: rosy dreams of youth, astronomical figures, to break the ice, the irony of fate The second type of set expressions are proverbs and sayings. Proverbs and sayings have linguistic features which distinguish them from ordinary sentences. Proverbs are brief statements which show in a condensed form the accumulated life experience of the so?ciety. They are usually short familiar epigrammatic say?ings, expressive and have generalized meaning. They are also image bearing. They express the wisdom of the pe?ople and never lose their freshness and vigour. E.g.: "Better late than never"; "Out of sight, out of mind"; "He laughs best, who laughs last"; "A great ship asks deep waters". Proverbs have much in common with set expressions because their lexical components are also constant, their meaning is traditional and mostly figurative, and they are introduced into speech ready-made. Usually English proverbs and sayings are rhythmi?cally arranged and rhymed. E.g.: "Eat at pleasure, drink with measure"; "A friend in need is a friend indeed. " Proverbs and sayings are mostly used by writers in the direct speed of characters to individualize their spe?ech, and also as laconic, expressive and emotional ready-made phrases. They are often used in the speech of cha?racters and the author's narrative to clarity and conform the thought. E.g.: "In this conflict we are the challengers. You have the choice of weapons. If you choose scandal, we'll take you on at that. No good will come of washing our dirty linen in public". (B. Shaw). 3. An epigram is a stylistic device which is very close to a proverb. Problematic question: What is the difference between epigrams and proverbs? The difference between them lies in the fact 'that epigrams are created by individuals, famous writers, poets, scientists, philosophers whom we know, while pro?verbs are the coinage of the people. In other words, when using epigrams, we usually make a reference to its author. Epigrams possess a great degree of independence and therefore, if taken out of the context, will retain the wholeness of the idea they express. Writers use epigrams to criticize their heros. Somer?set Maugham is fond of it and many of his novels and sto?ries abound in epigrams: 1. He that bends shall be made straight. 2. Failure is the foundation of success and success is 3. Mighty is he who conquers himself. Proverbs and sayings are used as expressive means of the language while epigrams constitute the stylistic devi?ces. Epigrams are literary expressions while proverbs are utterance of the folk language. Epigrams form a certain type of convergence when they are used together with other expressive means and stylistic devices. Simile - Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow. (J.Dryden) Repetition - All for one, one for all. (A. Duma) Litotes -- Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm. (W. Emerson) Metaphor - Knowledge is a city, to the building of which every human being brought a stone. (W. Emerson) Irony - A bank is a place where they lend you an umbrella in fair weather and ask for back when it begins to rain. (R. Frost) Periphrasis - The black flower of civilized society, a prison. (N. Hawthorn) Enumeration - Love and business and family and re?lations are art and patriotism are nothing but shadows of words when a man's starving. (CTHenry) 4. A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement From a book, speech and the like. By repeating a passage in a new environment, we attach to the utterance an importance which does not exist in the context. What is quoted must be worth quoting, since a quotation will inevitably acquire some degree of generalization Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted commas (" "), dashes ( - ), italics or other graphical means. They are mostly used accompanied by a reference to the author of the quotation, unless he is well-known to the reader or audience. The reference is made either in the text or in a foot-note and assumes various forms, as for instance: "As (so and so) has it"; "(So and so) once said that"...; "Here we quote (so and so)". The stylistic value of a quotation lies mainly in the fact that it comprises two meanings: the primary mea?ning, the one which it has in its original surroundings, and the applicative meaning, i.e. the one which it acquires in the new context. Quotations, unlike epigrams, need not necessarily be short. A whole paragraph or a long passage may be quoted if it suits the purpose. Quotations are used as a stylistic device with the aim of expanding the meaning of the sentence quoted and setting two meanings one against the other, thus modi?fying the original meaning. In this quality they are used mostly in the belles-lettres style. Quotations used in other styles of speech allow no modifications of meaning. 5.An allusion is a reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical facts or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. The use of allusion is based on the accumulated experi?ence and knowledge of the writer who presupposes a similar experience and knowledge in the reader. As a rule no indication of the source is given. This is one of the notable differences between quotation and allusion. short. A whole paragraph or a long passage may be quoted if it suits the purpose. There is an example of the use of a quotation: Socrates said, our only knowledge was "To know that nothing could be known" a pleasant Science enough, which levels to an ass Each man of Wisdom, future, past or present. (Byron) We distinguish two structural types of allusion. The first type is when allusion is realized through one word or a word combination. In this case the reference is made to certain famous names, events or facts: Henry VIII, Ann Boylein, Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, Voterloo. The second type of allusion is realized through its interpretation, so to say explanation given in the text. The stylistic effect of an allusion can be achieved only if the facts and personages alluded to are well-known to the reader. E.g.: "He was the meekest of his sex, the mildest of little men. He walked as softly as the Ghost in "Hamlet" and more slowly". (Dickens) The allusion to the famous play by Shakespeare is very expressive. Dickens draws an analogy between a timid and mild person and the misty and mysterious Ghost of King in "Hamlet" to produce a humorous effect. Here the author mentions the names of fames people: Caesar, Queen Elizabeth who had once visited a very small town in England - Walton. Questions 1. What is a set expression? 2. What are the characteristic features of proverbs and 3. What is the difference between an epigram and a proverb? Are there likness between them? 4. What is a quotation? 5. What does a quotation add to the utterance? 6. What is a cliche? 7. Are cliches distinguished as set expressions? Des?cribe it giving illustrations. Literature: 1. Akhmanova O. S. Linguostylistics. Theory and Method. M., MGU,1972 2. Anderson W. E. The Written Word. Some uses of English. Oxford University,1971 3. Arnold I. V. The English Word. M., Higher School, 1973 4. Galperin I. R. Stylistics M., Higher school, 1977 5. Murry, J. Middleton. The problems of Style. Ldn, 1961 6. Turner G. W. Stylistics. Peguim Books,1975 7. Warner A. A. Short Guide to English Style 8. ?????????? ?.?. ?????? ???? ????????????. ?., ?қ??????, 1995 9. www.linguistlist.org LECTURE 8 Date: 2016-06-12; view: 4845 |