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The grammar of academic discourse

Task 4: Study Table 2, which shows some types of language commonly associated with academic and non-academic writing. Note that individual writers do not always use these ‘correctly’: some academic writers tend towards informality, while some personal writing can seem quite formal.

 

Table 2: Key attributes of academic and non-academic texts

Academic writing Non-academic writing
Full forms There is The test did not show Connectors - The theory appears to provide an explanation for this phenomenon. However, this is not the case on a closer examination of the facts. - The experimental design was weak. Moreover, the methodology was faulty. Use of nominal groups (verbs made into nouns) The application (noun) of the results needs to be carefully considered rather than: We need to carefully consider how we apply (verb) the results. Use of the passive voice In recent years, several analyses of survey data have been published. Concise vocabulary ... the focus is on x Researchers assumed that … Point of view - Objective and impersonal, e.g. This essay attempts to … - Using qualifying language, e.g. One possible reason may be … Short forms There’s The test didn’t show Connectors - I want to go to the cinema, only I have to work late. - Because of work, I can’t go to London this weekend. Anyway, I don’t have enough money.   Use of pronouns We need to carefully consider how we apply the results.     Use of the active voice In recent years, researchers have published several analyses of survey data. Informal vocabulary ... talks about x They thought that … Point of view - Subjective and personal, e.g. In my essay I will attempt to … - Asking rhetorical questions, e.g. How can this be so?

One kind of academic writing that you will read frequently is the abstract. When an academic article is quite long, an abstract serves as a summary or an overview of it. Some lecturers will ask you to write an abstract of your own work. Read the abstract below, then do the tasks that follow.

Linguistic relativity An area of disagreement among experts in the relationship between language and the mind is linguistic relativity, also known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, the very popular notion that each language, because of its linguistic uniqueness, developsits own ways of thinking about the world. For example, if you agree with this opinion you would say that people from Korea ‘think differently’ from people from Spain because their languages are so different. Even though this belief is popular in many places, there isn’t much proof for it. Even experts who disagree about lots of other things often agree that this idea is wrong (Steinberg 1993; Pinker 1994). [Source: R. Carter & D. Nunan The Cambridge TESOL Guide. Cambridge University Press, p. 84.]

 

The underlined parts are examples of non-academic language: put each into the correct column, using Table 2 for reference. (Note: Some of them may fit into more than one column.)



 

Pronouns Informal Active verbs   Point of view vocabulary  
       

 

Although the text is non-academic, there are a few elements of academic language use. Work in groups and find three examples of academic language in it.

 

Features of academic writing [2]

Introduction

Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form of the language. There are eight main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately.

 

Complexity

Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language (Biber, 1988; Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999; Chafe, 1982; Cook, 1997; Halliday,1989).

Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately more lexical words than grammatical words. Written texts are shorter and have longer, more complex words and phrases. They have more noun-based phrases, more nominalisations, and more lexical variation.

Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses, more long sequences of prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language.

The following features are common in academic written texts: Noun-based phrases, Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of prepositional phrases, Participles, Passive verbs, Lexical density, Lexical complexity, Nominalisation, Attributive adjectives

 

Formality

Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions.

You should avoid:

a. colloquial words and expressions; ""stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of",

b. abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn't"

c. two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"

d. sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them in reports.

e. asking questions.

 

Precision

In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely. Do not use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".

 

 

Objectivity

Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. This is related to the basic nature of academic study and academic writing, in particular. Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe". They want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions. The thoughts and beliefs should be based on your lectures, reading, discussion and research and it is important to make this clear.

 

1. Compare these two paragraphs:

The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and testing. Researchers have suggested ways of making second language teaching and testing more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980; Oller, 1979b) on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of language proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language skills.

 

We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked about it for a long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing more communicative because that is how language works. I think that language is something we use for communicating, not an object for us to study and we remember that when we teach and test it.


Date: 2016-04-22; view: 2404


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