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OVERALL CONCLUSIONSEmpirical research summarized in this chapter shows that organizational stress has detrimental effects on individual health and well-being. Moreover, stress interventions—particularly those aimed at individual stress management—have been found to have beneficial effects. Researchers have criticized past empirical studies on organizational stress for their methodological shortcomings (Frese & Zapf, 1988; Kasl, 1978; Sullivan & Bhagat, 1992). During the past decade, an increasing number of studies followed a more rigorous research methodology (e.g., objective measures of stressors, longitudinal designs, test of curvilinear effects). We are convinced that this improved methodology has contributed to substantial progress within organizational stress research. Specifically, we observed progress with respect to the following issues: First, objective stressors—and not just the perception of stressors—are related to indicators of poor health and well-being. This implies that the well-documented empirical relationship between stressors and strains can not be fully explained by common method variance and overlap in content between independent and dependent variables. Second, stressors have a causal effect on health and well-being with concurrent effects that are stronger than lagged effects. There are additional reverse effects of strains on stressors. However, these effects seem to be relatively weak. Third, resources are important for an individual's health and well-being. The main effects of resources such as control at work, social support, and self-efficacy are stronger than their buffer effects.
Fourth, there are curvilinear effects of stressors on strains. However, it seems that compared to the linear effects, these curvilinear effects are of minor importance. Fifth, better designed studies with objective measures report smaller correlations than do studies with subjective measures (cf. also Zapf, Dormann, et al., 1996); it may appear that this points to actually low impact rates of stressors on strain and that the effect of stressors at work is rather small. We think that this would be a mistake (Frese & Zapf, 1988) because (a) no study ever measures all stressors at work; (b) objective measures of stressors underestimate the relationship between stressors and strains because observers' errors decrease the correlations; (c) strain is caused by many factors (stressors at work, biological and psychological predispositions, stressors outside work, etc.)—every one of which can only have a cer-| tain amount of influence; (d) there is a selection effect of most studies on stress at work (healthy workers effect) because ill people have a lower probability to be in the sample; (e) there are moderators that may increase the relationships; (f) finally, low correlations often appear to be of less practical importance than is actually the case, as shown by Abelson (1985), Frese (1985), and Rosenthal and Rubin (1982). Sixth, there are some studies that use natural experiments in stress research (e.g., Parkes, 1982). Kasl (1978) has called for more studies making use of natural experiments, and we can only repeat the suggestion here again. As a whole, the recent advancements made in organizational stress research demonstrate that it pays to invest in a better research methodology. However, to make real progress in a field it is not sufficient to focus only on research methodology. It is necessary to also invest in theory development and to make sure to address the most relevant research questions (Brief & George, 1995). For deepening the understanding of the process of how and when organizational stress affects the individual and the larger organization, we suggest the following avenues for future research: First, there is a clear need for a direct comparison between competing theoretical models. Such comparisons are still very rare (for an exception, cf. de Jonge et al., 2000). Such comparisons will be helpful for advancing theory about organizational stress because they will show which specific assumptions within one model make it superior to a competing model. Second, researcher should pay more attention to the impact of specific stressors and specific resources on specific strains. Such a specificity hypothesis (Broadbent. 1985) implies that specific stressors are related to specific symptoms but not to others. Empirical tests of this hypothesis are still rare (Hesketh & Shouksmith, 1986; Steen, Firth, & Bond, 1998). For a resource to be effective as a stress buffer, it is crucial that the resource matches the specific requirements of the stressor (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Here, researchers have specify more explicitly which resources are most helpful ;n specific stressful situation. Third, aspects of time should be taken much more seriously within organizational stress research. When studying the effects of stressors longitudinally, researchers should pay more attention to the time lags between the first and subsequent measurement points. Until now it seems that the time lags have been chosen rather arbitrarily or for convenience reasons. As the Dormann and Zapf (1999) study illustrated some effects are found only for a limited set of time lags. Researchers need to spell out more clearly within which time frame they expect specific strain symptoms to develop. Frese and Zapf (1988) have differentiated the following models based on time and stress exposure effects: (a) stress reaction model that implies an ill-health reaction to the stressor, which is reduced when the stressor is reduced; (b) accumulation model, in which the effect is not reduced even if the stressor no longer present; (c) dynamic accumulation model, in which the effects increase ill health further even when individuals are no longer exposed to the stressors; (d) adjustment model, in which people learn to cope with the stressor and ill health is reduced even though the people are still exposed to the stressors; (e) sleeper effect model, in which the ill health appears after the stressor disappears, as in the case of posttraumatic stress disorder. We think that it is useful to explicitly test different models, taking into consideration exposure time and differential timing effects (cf. also Garst et al., 2000). Fourth, more attention to time aspects is also necessary for testing interaction effects. It is necessary to examine in more detail at which point in time in the stress process resources are most helpful. For example, resources might act as powerful stress buffers only early in the stress process. Fifth, researchers should explicitly address the mediating processes in the stressor-strain relationship; this refers both to mediators at the physiological level and to mediators at the emotional and cognitive level (i.e., appraisals). Sixth, there should be more studies on stress and performance. Laboratory studies suggest that stressors have a negative effect on basic cognitive processes. However, in field study settings, the effects of stressors on job performance are less obvious. It seems that individuals uphold their perfor-mance by increasing effort. This increased work effort might have detrimental long-term effects on health and well-being, however. It is interesting to note that there are only a few field studies that simultaneously examined the effects of stressors on performance and on health and well-being. Research on the health effects of organizational stress and research on the performance effects of organizational stress are separate research areas, particularly in field studies. By focusing exclusively on
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Should the subjective be the objective? On studying mental processes, coping behavior Date: 2016-03-03; view: 806
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health and well-being or on performance effects, researchers get to know only one side of the coin. We suggest further advancing organizational stress research by looking simultaneously at the impact of stressors on performance and on health and well-being. .Such studies could identify the health and well-being costs of upholding high performance in stressful situations. Moreover, such studies could shed light on the performance requirements under which strain symptoms occur. It is also useful to address the role of resources by examining which resources let people uphold performance without impairing health and well-being.
482 Stress in Organizations
p,, croon. E. M., Van der Beek. A. J., Blonk, R. W. B., & Frings-
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behaviours and injuries in nurses. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72, 285-299.
486 Stress in Organizations
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488 Stress in Organizations