Organizational Cultureand Climate

and emergent processes. In K. J. Klein & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations (pp. 3-90). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

LaFollette, W. R., & Sims, H. P., Jr. (1975). Is satisfaction redundant with climate? Organizational Behavior and Human Perfor­mance, 13, 257-278.

Langan-Fox, J., & Tan, P. (1997). Images of culture in transition: Personal constructs of organizational stability and change. Jour­nal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70, 273-293.

Lawler, E. E., III. (1992). The ultimate advantage: Creating the high-involvement organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper and Row,

Lewin, K„ Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive
I behavior in experimentally created "social climates." Journal of

Social Psychology, 10, 271-299.

Likert, R. L. (1967). The human organization. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Lim, B. (1995). Examining the organizational culture and organiza­tional performance link. Leadership and Organization Develop­ment Journal, 16, 16-21,

Lin, C, Madu, C. N., & Kuei, C. H. (1999). The association between organizational climate and quality management practices: An empirical study on small- and medium-sized manufacturing com­panies in Taiwan. Total Quality Management, 10, 863-868.

Lindell, M. K., & Brandt, C. J. (2000). Climate quality and climate consensus as mediators of the relationship between organiza­tional antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85,331-348.

Litwin, G. H., & Stringer, R. A. (1968). Motivation and organiza­tional climate. Boston: Harvard University Press.

Luthans, F., & Kreitner, R. (1985), Organizational behavior modifi­cation and beyond. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

Magnusson, D.. & Endler, N. S. (1977). Personality at the cross­roads: Current issues in interactional psychology. Hillsdale, NJ; Erlbaum.

Marks, M. A.. Zaccaro, S. J.. & Mathieu, J. E. (2000). Performance implications of leader briefings and team-interaction training for team adaptation to novel environments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 971-986. Martin, J. (1985). Can organizational culture be managed? In P. J. Frost, L. F. Moore. M. R. Louis, C. C. Lundburg, & J. Martin (Eds.), Organizational culture (pp. 95-98). London: Sage.

Martin, J. (1992). Cultures in organizations: Three perspectives.

New York: Oxford University Press. Martin, J., & Siehl, C. J. (1983). Organizational culture and coun­terculture: An uneasy symbiosis. Organizational Dynamics, 12, 52-64. McDermott, C. M., & Stock, G. N. (1999). Organizational culture and advanced manufacturing technology implementation. Jour­nal of Operations Management, 17, 521-533.

McGregor, D. M. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York;

McGraw-Hill. Mischel, W. (1973). Toward a cognitive social learning conceptual­ization of personality. Psychological Review, HO, 252-283. Milgrom, P., & Roberts, J. (1995). Complementarities and fit: Strategy, structure, and organizational change in manufactur­ing. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 19, 179-208. Mintzberg, H. (1973). The nature of managerial work. New York:

Harper and Row. Mohan, M. L. (1993). Organizational communication and cultural vision: Approaches for analysis. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Moran, E. T., & Volkwein, J. F. (1992). The cultural approach to the

formation of climate. Human Relations, 45, 19-47.
Morgeson, E P., & Hofmann, D. A. (1999). The structure and func­
tion of collective constructs: Implications for multilevel research
and theory development. Academy of Management Review, 24,
249-285.
Morrison, E. W., & Milliken, F. J. (2000). Organizational silence:
A barrier to change and development in a pluralistic world.
Academy of Management Review, 25, 706-725.
Naumann, S. E., & Bennett, N. (2000). A case for procedural justice
climate: Development and test of a multi-level model. Academy
of Management Journal, 43, 881-889. ;

Ogbonna, E. (1993), Managing organizational culture: Fantasy or

reality? Human Resource Management Journal, 3, 42-54.
Ogbonna, E., & Harris, L. C. (1998), Managing organizational
culture: Compliance or genuine change? British Journal of
Management, 9, 273-288.
O'Reilly, C. A., Ill,Chatman, J. A„ & Caldwell, D. F. (1991). People
and organizational culture: A profile comparison approach to
assessing person-organization fit. Academy of Management •.
Journal, 34, 487-516. I

Ostroff, C. (1993a). Comparing Correlations based on individual- :
level and aggregated data. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, =
693-974. |

Ostroff, C. (1993b). The effects of climate and personal influences
on individual behavior and attitudes in organizations. Organiza- >
tional Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 56, 56-90. {

Ostroff, C. (1995). SHRM/CCH survey. Human Resources Man­
agement: Ideas and Trends in Personnel (356), 1-12.
Ostroff, C, & Bowen, D. E. (2000). Moving HR to a higher level: '
HR practices and organizational effectiveness. In K. J. Klein & _
S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research andmeth- ■
ods in organizations (pp. 211-266). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ;
Ostroff, C, & Rothausen, T. R. (1997). The moderating effect of
tenure in person-environment fit: A field study in educational
organizations. Journal of Occupational and Organizational {
Psychology, 70, 173-188. J

Ostroff, C, & Schmitt, N. (1993). Configurations of organizational . effectiveness and efficiency. Academy of Management Journal 36, 1345-1361.

Oswald, S., Stanwick, P., & LaTour, M. (1997). The effect of vision, strategic planning, and cultural relationships on organizational performance: A structural approach. International Journal of Management, 14, 521-529.

Ouchi. W. G. (1981). Theory Z: How American business can meet the Japanese challenge. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Patterson, M,, Payne, R., & West, M. (1996). Collective climates: A test of their sociopsyetiological significance. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 1675-1691.

Payne, R. L. (1990). Madness in our method. A comment on Jackofsky and Slocum's paper, "A longitudinal study of cli­mates." Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 77-80.

Payne, R. L. (2000). Climate and culture: How close can they get? In N. M. Ashkanasy, C P. M. Wilderom, & M. F. Peterson (Eds.), Handbook of organizational culture <£ climate (pp. 363-176). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Payne, R. L., Fineman, S., & Wall, T. D. (1976). Organizational

climate and job satisfaction: A conceptual synthesis. Organiza­tional Behavior and Human Performance, 16,45-62. Payne, R.L.,&Pugh, D. S. (1976). Organizational structure and cli­mate. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and orga­nizational psychology (pp. 1125-1173). Chicago: Rand-McNally. Pervin, L. R. (1967). A twenty-college study of student x college interaction using TAPE (Transactional analysis of personality and environment): Rationale, reliability and validity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 290-302.

Peters, T. J., & Waterman, R. (1982). In search of excellence. New York: Harper and Row.

Peterson, M. F., & Smith, P. B. (2000). Sources of meaning, organi­zations, and culture: Making sense of organizational events. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom, & M. F. Peterson (Eds.), Handbook of organizational culture & climate (pp. 101-116). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Poole, M. S. (1999). Group communication theory. In L. R. Frey, D. B S. Gouran, & M. S. Poole (Eds.), The handbook of group com­munication theory and research (pp. 37-70). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Pritchard, R. D, & Karasick, B. W. (1973). The effects of organiza­tional climate on managerial job performance and job satisfaction. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 9, 126-146.

Quinn, R. E., & Kimberly, J. R. (1984). Paradox, planning, and per­severance: Guidelines for managerial practice. In J. R. Kimberly & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Managing organizational translations (pp. 295-313), Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.

Quinn, R., E., & McGrath, M. R. (1985). The transformation of

: organizational cultures: A competing values perspective. In P. J.

Frost, L. F. Moore, M. R. Louis, C. C. Lundberg, & J. Martin

(Eds.), Organizational culture (pp. 315-334). Beverly Hills, CA:

Sage.

Quinn, R. E., & Rohrbaugh, J. (1983). A spatial model of effective­ness criteria: Toward a competing values approach to organiza­tional analysis. Management Science, 29, 363-377.

References 591

Reichers. A. E., & Schneider, B. (1990). Climate and culture: An evolution of constructs. In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational climate and culture (pp. 5-39). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Rentsch, J. R. (1990). Climate and culture: Interaction and qualita­tive differences in organizational meanings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75,668-681.

Roberts. K. H., Hulin, C. L., & Rousseau, D. M. (1978). Developing an interdisciplinary science of organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Rousseau, D. M. (1985). Issues of level in organizational research: Multi-level and cross-level perspectives. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 1-37). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Rousseau, D. M. (1990). Assessing organizational culture: The case for multiple methods. In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational cli­mate and culture (pp 153-192). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Rousseau, D. M. (1995). Psychological contracts in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Rousseau, D. M., & Wade-Benzoni. K. A. (1994). Linking strategy and human resource practices: How employee and customer con­tracts are created. Human Resource Management, 33, 463-490.

Rowlinson, M., & Procter, S. (1999). Organizational culture and business history. Organization Studies, 20, 369-396.

Sathe, V, & Davidson, E. J. (2000). Toward a new conceptualiza­tion of culture change. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom. & M. F. Peterson (Eds.), Handbook of organizational culture & climate (pp. 279-296). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Schein, E. H. (1983). The role of the founder in creating organiza­tional culture. Organizational Dynamics, 12, 13-28.

Schein, E. H. (1985). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schein, E. H. (1990). Organizational culture. American Psychologist,

45, 109-119. Schein, E. H. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership: A

dynamic view. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schein, E. H. (2000). Sense and nonsense about culture and climate. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom, & M. F. Peterson (Eds.), Handbook of organizational culture & climate (pp. xxiii-xxx). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Schneider, B. (1975). Organizational climates: An essay. Personnel Psychology, 28, 447-479.

Schneider, B. (1983). Work climates: An interactionist perspective. In N. W. Feimer & E. S. Geller (Eds.), Environmental psychology (pp. 106-128). New York: Praiger,

Schnieder, B. (1987). The people make the place. Personnel Psy­chology, 40, 437-453.

Schneider, B. (1990). The climate for service: An application of the climate construct, In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational climate and culture (pp. 383-412). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schneider, B. (2000). The psychological life of organizations. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom, & M. F. Peterson (Eds.),

592 Organizational Culture and Climate

Handbook of organizational culture & climate (pp. xvii-xxi). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Schneider, B.. & Bartlett, J. (1968). Individual differences and orga­nizational climate: I. The research plan and questionnaire devel­opment. Personnel Psychology, 21, 323-333.

Schneider, B., & Bartlett, J. (1970). Individual differences and orga­nizational climate: II. Measurement of organizational climate by the multitrait-multirater matrix. Personnel Psychology, 23, 493-512.

Schneider, B., &Bowen,D.E. (1985). Employee and customer per­ceptions of service in banks: Replication and extension. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 423-433.

Schneider, B., Bowen, D. E., Ehrhart, M. G., & Holcombe, K. M.

(2000). The climate for service: Evolution of a construct. In

N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom, & M. F. Peterson (Eds),

k Handbook of organizational culture &. climate (pp. 21-36).

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Schneider, B., Brief, A. P., & Guzzo, R. A. (1996). Creating a cli­mate and culture for sustainable organizational change. Organi­zational Dynamics, 24, 6-19.

Schneider, B., Gunnarson, S. K., & Niles-Jolly, K. (1994). Creating the climate and culture of success. Organizational Dynamics, 23, 17-29.

Schneider, B., Parkington, J. J., & Buxton, V. M. (1980). Employee and customer perceptions of service in banks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25, 252-267.

Schneider, B., & Reichers, A. A. (1983). On the etiology of climates. Personnel Psychology, 36, 19-39.

Schneider, B., & Snyder, M. (1975). Some relationships between job satisfaction and organizational climate. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 318-328.

Schneider, B., White, S. S., & Paul, M. C. (1998). Linking service climate and customer perceptions of service quality: Test of a causal model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 150-163.

Schultz, M., & Hatch. M. J. (1996). Living with multiple paradigms: The case of paradigm interplay in organizational culture studies. Academy of Management Review, 21, 529-557.

Schuster, F. E., Morden, D. L., Baker, T. E., McKay, I. S., Dunning, K. E., & Hagan, C. M. (1997). Management practice, organiza­tion climate, and performance. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 33, 209-226.

Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychol­ogy (Vol. 25, pp. 1-65). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1994). Determinants of innovative be­havior in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 580-607.

Shadur, M. A.. Kienzle, R„ & Rodwell. J. J. (1999). The relation­ship between organizational climate and employee perceptions of involvement. Group & Organization Management, 24,

479-503. „ .

Sheridan, J. E. (1992). Organizational culture and employee reten­tion. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 1036-1056.

Shortell, S. M., O'Brien, J. L., Carman. J. M., Foster, R„ Hughes E. F. X., Boerstler, H., & O'Connor, E. J. (1995). Assessing the impact of continuous quality improvement/total quality management: Concept versus implementation. Health Services Research, 30, 377-401.

Siehl, C, & Martin, J. (1990). Organizational culture: Akey to finan­cial performance? In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational climate andculture (pp. 241-281). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Smart, J. C, & St. John, E. P. (1996). Organizational culture and ef­fectiveness in higher education: A test of the "culture type" and "strong culture" hypotheses. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 18, 219-241.

Smircich, L. (1983). Concepts of culture and organizational analy­sis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28, 339-358.

Smircich, L., & Morgan, G. (1982). Leadership: The management of meaning. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 18, 257-273.

Sparrow, P. R., & Gaston, K. (1996). Generic climate maps: A strate­gic application of climate survey data? Journal of Organiza­tional Behavior, 17, 679-698.

Stackman, R. W., Pinder, C. C, & Connor, P. E. (2000). Values lost: Redirecting research on values in the workplace. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom, & M. F. Peterson (Eds.), Hand­book of organizational culture & climate (pp. 37-54). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1997). A meta-analysis of the effects of organizational behavior modification on task performance, 1975-95. Academy of Management Journal, 40, 1122-1149.

Stern, G. G. (1970). People in context: Measuring person-environ­ment congruence in education and industry. New York: Wiley.

Taguiri, R., & Litwin, G. (Eds.). (1968). Organizational climate: Explorations of a concept. Boston: Harvard Business School, Division of Research.

Tata, J., & Prasad, S. (1998). Cultural and structural constraints on total quality management implementation. Total Quality Management, 9, 703-710.

Tesluk, P. E., Fair, J. L., & Klein, S. R. (1997). Influences of organi­zational culture and climate on individual creativity. Journal of Creative Behavior, 31, 27-41.

Trice, H. M., & Beyer, J. M. (1993). The cultures of work organiza­tions. Englewood Cliffs, Ni: Prentice Hall.

Trice, H. M„ Belasco, J., & Alutto, J. A. (1969). The role of ceremonials in organizational behavior. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 23, 40-51.

Tsui, A. S„ Pearce, J. L., Porter, L. W., & Tripoli, A. M. (1997). Alternative approaches to employee-organization relationship: Does investment in employees pay off? Academy of Manage­ment Journal, 40, 1089-1121.

Vandenberghe, C. (1999). Organizational culture, person-culture fit, and turnover: A replication in the health care industry. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 175-184.

Verbeke, W., Volgering, M., & Hessels. M. (1998). Exploring the

conceptual expansion within the field of organizational behav­iour: Organizaliona! climate and organizational culture. Journal of Management Studies, 35, 303-329.

Victor, B., & Cullen, J. B. (1988). The organizational bases of ethical work climates. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33, 101-125.

Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Wicker, A. W. (1992). Making sense of environments. In W. B. Walsh, K. H. Craik, & R. H. Price (Eds.), Person-environment psychology (pp. 157-192). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Wilderom, C. P. M„ Glunk, U„ & Maslowski. R. (2000). Organiza­tional culture as a predictor of organizational performance. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom, & M. F. Peterson (Eds.), Handbook of organizational culture & climate (pp. 193-210). Thousand Oaks, CA; Sage.

References 593

Young, S. A., & Parker, C. P. (1999). Predicting collective climates:

Assessing the role of shared work values, needs, employee inter­action and work group membership. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 1199-1218.

Zammuto, R. F., Gifford, B., & Goodman, E. A. (2000). Managerial ideologies, organization culture, and the outcomes of innovation: A competing values perspective. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom, & M. F. Peterson (Eds.), Handbook of organizational culture & climate (pp. 261-278). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Zammuto, R. R, & Krakower. J. Y. (1991). Quantitative and qualita­tive studies of organizational culture. In R. W. Woodman & W. A, Pasmore (Eds.). Research in organizational change and develop­ment (Vol. 5, pp. 83-114). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Zohar. D. (2000). A group-level model of safety climate: Testing the effect of group climate on microaccidents in manufacturing jobs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 587-596.

CHAPTER 18

Stress in Organizations

SABINE SONNENTAG AND MICHAEL FRESE

THE STRESS CONCEPT 454

Overview of Conceptualizations of Stress 454 Stressors 454 Stress Reactions 456 THEORIES ON ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS 457

Theoretical Models Focusing on the Stress Process 457
k Theoretical Models on the Relationship Between Stressful
^ Situations and Strains 458

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE 460

Main Effects of Stressful Situations on Individual

Well-Being and Health 460 The Role of Resources 467

Stress in organizations is a widespread phenomenon with far-reaching practical and economic consequences. A report published by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (1999) in the United States summarized findings from various surveys on organizational stress and found that between 26 and 40% of all surveyed workers experi­enced their work as very stressful. Similarly, 28% of the workers in the European Union reported that their work causes stress (Levi & Lunde-Jensen, 1996). In Japan, the percentage is even higher than either of these (Harnois & Gabriel, 2000).

Experiencing organizational stress is related to health problems and their associated costs. A study based on more "lan 46,000 U.S. employees showed that health care costs were 46% higher for workers who experienced high levels of stress (Goetzel et al., 1998). Moreover, organizational stress ^{1S ass}umed to be related to increased absenteeism. For exam-Pie, estimates from the U.S. and England suggest that about °e half of all lost days within organizations are related to workplace stress (Cooper, Liukkonen, & Cartwright, 1996;

^e ^e grateful to Paul Spector and Doris Fay for their helpful ments and suggestions on an earlier version of this chapter.

Stress and Performance 471

Stress and Other Aspects of Organizational Behavior 473 STRESS INTERVENTIONS 474

Stressor Reduction 475

Increase in Resources 475

Combination of Stressor Reduction and Increase in Resources 476

Strain Reduction 476

Lifestyle Changes 478

Conclusion on Stress Interventions 478 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS 479 REFERENCES 481

Elkin & Rosch, 1990). Absenteeism costs organizations billions of dollars per year (Cox, Griffiths, & Rial-Gonzales, 2000). In the long run, stress might lead to disabilities. Data from the Netherlands show that 30% of all cases of disability pensions are due to stress-related disorders (Van der Hek & Plomp, 1997), and similar findings exist for other countries. Moreover, mortality rates were found to be related to occupa­tional groups—that is, to work-specific stressors (Fletcher, 1991).

Because of this practical relevance of workplace stress, there is an enormous and still ongoing research activity within the field of organizational stress (Beehr, 1995). Find­ings from past research have been summarized in previous review chapters and journal articles (Beehr & Newman, 1978; Danna & Griffin, 1999; Ganster & Schaubroeck, 1991; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992; McGrath, 1976; Sullivan & Bhagat, 1992). Many researchers criticized organizational stress studies for methodological weaknesses (Frese & Zapf, 1988; Kasl, 1978). Their main concerns referred to the fol­lowing issues: The overwhelming majority of the empirical studies are cross-sectional in nature and do not allow infer­ences on causality. In many studies the independent and de­pendent measures share common method variance and overlap in content. Most studies focus on bivariate, linear

454 Stress in Organizations

relationships and neglect possible moderator and nonlinear effects.

Nevertheless, over the years researchers witnessed meth­odological improvements in organizational stress studies (Beehr, 1998; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992), particularly during the past 10 years; the improvements include (a) a better operationalization of basic concepts that allow a better test of theoretical models (e.g., Edwards & Harrison, 1993; Wall, Jackson, Mullarkey, & Parker, 1996); (b) an increasing num­ber of studies that use objective measures of stressors (Greiner, Ragland, Krause, Syme, & Fisher, 1997; Melamed, Ben-Avi, Luz, & Green, 1995); (c) a steady increase in lon­gitudinal studies, with many of them using a structural equa­tion modeling approach for data analysis (e.g., Bakker, I Schaufeli, Sixma, Bosveld, & van Dierendonck, 2000; Dor-* mann & Zapf, 1999; Schonfeld, 1992); (d) exploration of curvilinear effects (e.g., de Jonge & Schaufeli, 1998; Dol-lard, Winefield, Winefield, & de Jonge, 2000; Warr, 1990); and (e) use of innovative approaches such as multilevel de­signs (e.g., Jex & Bliese, 1999) and growth curve models (e.g., Barnett & Brennan, 1997; Garst, Frese, & Molenaar, 2000).

This chapter reviews research on stress in organizations and its practical implications. It aims at an extension of previ­ous reviews by focusing more strongly on methodologically sound—although not perfect—studies. This gives us the op­portunity to examine more deeply the processes and conse­quences associated with organizational stress. Specifically, we address the question of whether methodologically improved studies contribute to a better understanding of organizational stress. Most of the more recent review chapters and articles have exclusively looked at health and well-being conse­quences of organizational stress (Danna & Griffin, 1999; Ganster & Schaubroeck, 1991; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992). We broaden the view by including performance and other organi­zational behavior issues (e.g., organizational commitment and absenteeism).

In the first section of this chapter, we describe the stress concept and give an overview of stressors and stress reac­tions. In the second section, we present theories of organiza­tional stress. The third section is devoted to empirical findings in organizational stress research. We describe the empirical evidence of main and moderator effects on the re­lationship between stressors and individual health and well-being. We summarize research findings on the relationship between stress and performance, In addition, we refer to the effects of stress on other aspects of organizational behavior. In the fourth section, we describe stress management inter­ventions. In conclusion, we suggest a few research questions for the future.

THE STRESS CONCEPT

Date: 2016-03-03; view: 913