Strain-Theory Perspective

Trice and Beyer (1993) use strain theory to explain how cul­ture emerges. Given that people are averse to strain and its associated negative consequences, Trice and Beyer propose that ideologies, which represent the core content of an organi­zation's culture, are used to make social situations compre­hensible, more structured, and less stressful. They propose that an organization's culture ultimately is shaped by the conflict and strain that exits among competing ideologies. Although Trice and Beyer note that shared experiences, so­cialization, communication, social interactions, and the re­lated processes of influence, power, and leadership affect the sense-making process, they do not specifically detail how con­flict among ideologies manifests in the emergence of organi­zational culture.

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Symbolic-Process Perspective

Hatch's (1993) model includes a role for symbolic processes and specifies linkages with Schein's (1985,1992) three layers of culture. The dynamic, emergent nature of Hatch's model is captured by a conceptualization of the links among artifacts, values, assumptions, and symbols as being influenced by four processes: manifestation, realization, symbolization, and in­terpretation. These four processes create both forward (proac­tive/prospective) and backward (retrospective/retroactive) temporal modes of operation.

The embedding process begins through the manifestation and realization of specific assumptions, values, or behavioral norms. Cultural artifacts are the product of manifestation and realization processes. According to Hatch (2000, p. 250), "arti­facts realize underlying values and assumptions in the sense that they are made real (tangible, explicit, material) via actions that are culturally shaped and directed." Once an artifact is re­alized, the symbolization and interpretation processes take over and lead to the emergence of organizational culture. An ar­tifact becomes a cultural symbol when people use the symbol to make sense of an event or artifact. For example, a company pin becomes an artifact whenever someone wears it. Symbolization represents the process of linking artifacts with meanings through the recognition of personal or social significance. Symbolization is largely influenced by the social context asso­ciated with the artifact. Finally, interpretation specifies the meaning attached to a symbol. Returning to the example of wearing a corporate pin, this artifact could be symbolic of com­pany pride or of an ingratiating person, depending on the social context operating at the time the pin is worn. It thus appears that culture becomes emergent when large segments of the unit or organization share the symbolic interpretations of assump­tions, values, and behavioral norms. Although Hatch's model helps explain the dynamic nature of how organizational culture emerges, researchers have not yet begun to empirically examine the model's key propositions.

Date: 2016-03-03; view: 769