New civic identity and status

Inorodtsy (singular: inorodets), is a legal term used in the Russian Empire in reference to non-Slavic population of the Empire. Literally meaning "of different descent/nation", it is sometimes translated as allogeneous (people) and sometimes as "aliens". The term was applied to the indigenous population of Siberia, Central Asia, and Russian Far East. Initially introduced as a legal statute for special treatment of certain categories of population (including a certain degree of protection of their traditional life), for which some laws of the Empire were deemed inappropriate, over time the term acquired a pejorative connotation of "lacking culture, uncivilized peoples".

Privileges and special treatment for inorodtsy included exemption of military service, protection of grazing lands, and religious and governmental self-administration.

By Charter of 1822 Kazakhs were included in 3 categories of inorodtsy: Inner Horde (Bukey), Semipalatinsk and Turkestan krays.

Their rights were defined in: “Provisions on inorodtsy”, “Provisions on the administration of Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, Semirechensk, Uralsk and Turgay oblasts”, and other acts.

Kazakhs related to oriental inorodtsy: sedentary, nomadic and vagrant due to their lifestyle, but it led to specific treatment- rights and adminsitration.

Kazakhs lived in rural areas, related to volost administration and at lower level had self-governance- aul assemblies (1 representative from 50 kibitkas/households) led by aul chief. Aul assembly elected bii and council of biis (3) for 3 years term.

Volostnoy was elected, and endorsed by governor. The rights and duties of volostnoy, aul administration were defined by the General provisions on peasant establishments.

During migration Kazakhs were to report the upper structures about time, place and number of households.

Military service for inorodtsy of Astrakhan gubernia, Akmolinskaya, Semipalatinskaya, Turgaiskaya and Uralskaya oblasts was introduced since mid 1880 on special decision.

Administration of Bukei Horde

Was under Interior affairs Ministry, originally ruled by khan and then by Interim Council out of the relatives of deceased khan and an official from the Ministry of State Properties. Later on it was under Astrakhan governor administratively, and in legal way- under Astrakhan allied chamber of criminal and civic courts. The chairman of the interim council was appointed by by Interior minister. Local representatives- out of the graduates of Neplyuev cadet college selected by the Astrakhan governor.

The council handled all civil cases between Kyrgyzes, and criminal- petty crimes and thefts under 30 roubles.

The horde was divided into 7 parts: 1 and 2 Caspian, Kamysh-Samara, Naryn, Kalmyk, Talov, Torgy, ruled by horde people. The parts consisted of starshinstva, they – of auls. Both were ruled by elected horde people.

Effects on Kazakh political culture and traditions

1. Accelerated the process of crystallization of national consciousness

2. Contributed to the creation of specific intelligentsia types– “westernizers”- C.Valikhanov, I.Altynsarin, A.Bukeikhanov, etc. and traditionalists – aqyns (“Zar zaman” poets)“ turkists/jadids”

3. Russian version of westernization: political institutions, development of capitalism, social stratification – working class, farmers, business circles, administrators/bureaucracy, imperial legal code, abolition of slavery, introduction of market mechanisms, education, mass media, sciences, arts, etc.

4. Evolution of political ideologies: social-democracy, constitutional democracy, nationalist- Muslim- conservative and Jadidism, Pan-Turkism- on Kazakh soil

5. Involvement in the political processes centered on the Russian empire events – Russian revolutions (1905-1907, WWI, February and October revolutions of 1917)

6. New ethnic map and polarization of population along ethnic, religious and clan lines

westernizes

Viewed Russian presence as an opportunity to civilize, promote culture and education, upgrade economic and political development, eradicate medieval tribal backwardness. But: since early XX second generation of Kazakh intelligentsia declared the right of Kazakh on their native land and statehood. They took active part in various- polar- political movements to gain independence- form cooperation with the tsarist regime through collaboration with the Provisional government – to alliance with Bolsheviks.

I.Altynsarin is best known for introducing a Cyrillic alphabet for the Kazakh language, and was a proponent of teaching in the Western style. But he opposed the teaching of Orthodox Christian doctrines to non-Russian Kazakhs, but at the same time urged resistance to Tatar language and culture, in favor of Russian and Western influences. As an educator, he opened numerous Kazakh-Russian boarding schools, technical schools and schools for girls.

Altynsarin is also credited with authoring the first Kazakh grammar book, the first Kazakh-Russian newspaper, and with translation of a large number of textbooks and reference works. He was honored by the Imperial Russian government with numerous awards, including the title statski sovetnik (State Councillor).

Effects of the Russian colonization (long-term period)

•1) For the first time after Mongols the region came under centralized control- political, economic and military

•2) Russian style of civilization development was introduced in all spheres –political, economic, social, cultural, military, religious

•3) development of capitalism (Russian style) and exploration of natural resources (oil, coal, copper, iron ores, etc.)

•4) large-scale production of cotton monoculture and grain

•5) changes in settlement of nomadic and sedentary peoples

•6) abolition of traditional political, social and cultural institutes

•7) introduction of Russian language for political, eocnomic and cultural needs

•8) Abolition of slavery – till XIX century the region was one of the chief centers of slave trade and export of slaves to the Middle East

•9) forced sedentarization of Kazakhs and Kyrgyzes

•10) demographic changes- arrival of new ethnic groups from Russia (Russians Ukrainians), and China (Uigurs and Dungans)

•11) building of new urban centers

•12) development of sciences and research activities in various fields- from geology to literature and ethnography

•13) introduction of mass media

•13) emergence of working class

•14) emergence of political parties- from liberal to communist

•15) new educational institutes

•16) influence on literature, development of languages (e.g. Kazakh alphabet was introduced)

•17) rise of national intelligencia

•18) creation of external borders- with China, Persia\Iran, Afghanistan, division of the Caspian Sea (with Persia)

Soviet legacy

Bolshevik revolution and Soviet modernization reforms drastically changed the civilization paradigm on the region and its people in the design to Europeanize them in the Bolshevik manner. The Bolsheviks theoreticians (V.Lenin and J.Stalin) believed that socialist society could be built on any soil, any stage of social-economic development - feudalism or primitive patriarchic society. It was the concept of non-capitalist development with national specifics.

Objectives of the soviet political reforms and their effects on Kazakh traditions and culture:

Plans of socialism building was outlined by V.Lenin but practically implemented by J.Stalin.

The program of Bolshevik modernization included the following aspects:

1) establishment of total political control –dictatorship of proletariat with the leading role of the communist party;

2) creation of social-political basis for the socialism- through physical elimination of unreliable elements- intellectuals, representatives of steppe aristocracy and well-off people- bais

3) creation of working class- vast territory of Kazakhstan was to be industrialized- building of factories and import of labor force from European part of Russia

4) demographic crisis- population losses- about 2 mln. Kazakhs died of famine, between 200-250 thous. migrated to china, Mongolia, Iraq, Afghanistan.

5) Making of new culture- no connection with the past in language, mentality, arts, philosophy, architecture, dress code, names.

6) making of new identities- of soviet people, but first- creation of ethnicities\nationalities. Stalin’s definition of nation dominated the process: nation is community of people based on common language, territory, economy and historical –cultural ties. Smaller ethnic groups were to merge with bigger ones, and they- into one identity- soviet people.

7) new map of the region – for administrative, economic, political and military strategic reasons

8) Social aims- to eradicate religion, raise the social status of women, create class of proletariat, and eliminate social disparities- rich and poor, aristocracy and plebeians

Borders between the republics were set up during the national-territorial delimitation in 1924 under the decree “On national delimitation of the Central Asian republics”. The reforms started from large-scale propaganda campaign as many religious and nationalist leaders put forward ideas of creation “Turkestan Union”, or “Bigger Uzbekistan”. But Moscow insisted on its plan in 1924-1925 were formed Uzbek SSR and Turkmen SSR, Tajik Autonomous Republic (part of Uzbek SSR), Kara-Kirgyz Autonomous oblast (part of Russian Federation). Later on were formed union republics Таjik SSR (1929), Каzakh (1936) and Kyrgyz (1936).

Soviet legacy

1. Monopoly of the communist party on power and total control over all aspects of life

2. Dictatorship of proletariat- for Kz- its creation from anew out of impoverished Kazak nomads, Slavic population and deported peoples- Germans, Koreans, etc.

3. Communist ideology- Marx/Engels theory- Lenin-Stalin-Khruschev-Brezhenv and Gorbachev-stage by stage building of communism- a) dictatorship of proletariat 91917-1927)-basics of socialism (till 1937)-socialism (1961)-developed socialism (1982)- stagnation and collapse by 1991 (due to perestroika)

4) new type of statehood and borders- from 2 Russian colonial peripheries- semi-autonomous status as part of the Russian Federation and in 1936- Kazakh SSR

5) new social structure- elimination of aristocracy, bais, biis and ulema- instead- working class, collective farmers, intelligentsia- instead of tribal structure

6) new political culture- communist party membership, active participation in the party related organizations and structures- comsomol, trade unions, security organs collaboration (secsots)

7) external administration- officials sent by Moscow- until 1960s (Kunayev D.). Kazakh were given second posts.

8) ban on religion and religious practices- Islamic solidarity was replaced by internationalism

9) economic modernization- industrial development- resource base, and soviet agriculture

10) ethnic map changes- since 1930s- more other ethnic groups: major stages- elimination of tribe/clan/Juz based social structure – new one was focused on regime loyalty and class principle

11) emergence of so-called euro-nationals – Russian educated and indoctrinated locals to promote Moscow politics.

12) political loyalty- reprisals, GULAG system, KGB

13) new education system

14) new military system- recruitment of Kazakhs into military service, training, contribution to WWII, nuclear pillar and Cold war pawn

15) new moral

16) new supra-identity building- soviet people

17) soviet mass voluntary organizations to form soviet identity. But negative sides- parasitic attitude- reliance of the state structure in solving personal problems, indifference to labor and discipline, social mimicry.

Effects:

1) from the historical and political map were erased the states existing before the revolution and even tsarist administrative divisions;

2) soviet type of statehood and nationhood was to be created- grad communist experiment

3) Central Asia was designed to be a show window for other “oppressed” colonial people- national self-determination.

4) Moscow control

Depended in the Central Asia (in Kazakhstan in particular) on: % of Slavic/Russian population, internal tribal structure, intellectual and cultural development of the local elite, its readiness to cooperate to benefit from the access to power.

Case: see the rule of the Kazakh SSR:

1936-, December 5- 1938, May 3- Mirzoyan Levon Isayevich

1938, May 3- 1945, September 14- Skvotsov Nikolay Aleksandrovitch

Nikolay Aleksandrovich Skvortsov (3 May 1938 – 14 September 1945)

Zhumabay Shayakhmetovich Shayakhmetov (14 September 1946 – 6 March 1954)

Panteleimon Kondratyevich Ponomarenko (6 March 1954 – 7 May 1955)

Leonid Ilich Brezhnev (7 May 1955 – 6 March 1956)

Ivan Dmitriyevich Yakovlev (6 March 1956 – 26 December 1957)

Nikolay Ilich Belyayev (26 December 1957 – 19 January 1960)

Dinmukhamed Akhmedovich Kunayev (19 January 1960 – 26 December 1962) (1st time)

Ismail Yusupovich Yusupov (26 December 1962 – 7 December 1964)

Dinmukhamed Akhmedovich Kunayev (7 December 1964 – 16 December 1986) (2nd time)

Gennady Vasilyevich Kolbin (16 December 1986 – 22 June 1989)

Nursultan Abishevich Nazarbayev (22 June 1989 – 28 August 1991)

Criteria for good local leader (Moscow stance)- be above tribal/regional links.

Types of soviet political organizations to mobilize and socialize the people:

1. Young Octobers; 2. Pioneers; 3. Komsomol; 5. Communist part

But- state and party controlled, no initiative from the bottom.

Why? Specifics of Kazakh culture and traditions: compromise seeking, legitimate means of communication and pressure on power (poor protesting), respect to traditional leaders, that gradually were eliminated and those survived turned into the mediators between power and people.

Date: 2016-03-03; view: 853