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The Types of Repetition on the Lexico-Syntactical Level

· anaphora a…, a…, a…

(Implies identity of initial parts of two or more autonomous syntactical segments (verse lines, stanzas, paragraphs, etc.), adjacent or at a distance in the text, yet obviously connected semantically),e.g.:

I love your hills,

I love your walls,

I love your flocks and bleating. (Keats)

· epiphora …a, …a, …a.

(As opposed to anaphora implies recurrence of one or several elements concluding two or more syntactical units), e.g.:

I wake up and I am alone

and I walk round Warley and I am alone;

and I talk to people and I am alone

and I look at his face when I’m home and it’s dead. (J.Br.)

· framing abca.

(The term is used to denote the recurrence of the initial segment at the very end of a syntactic unit, by which a kind of frame is formed with the help of recurring words)

· anadiplosis (catch repetition) …a, a…

(Greek “doubling”; the final element of a syntactical unit recurs at the very beginning of the succeeding unit, the concluding part of the preceding unit serves the starting point of the next)

· chain repetition …a, a…b, b…c, c…

(Presents several successive anadiploses, the effect is that of the smoothly developing reasoning, e.g.:

Living is the art of loving.

Loving is the art of caring.

Caring is the art of sharing.

Sharing is the art of living. (W.H.D.)

· ordinary repetition …a, …a…, a…(has no definite place in the sentence and the repeated unit occurs in various positions; ordinary repetition emphasizes both the logical and the emotional meanings of the reiterated unit).

· successive repetition … a, a, a … is a string of closely following each other reiterated units; this is the most emphatic type of repetition, it signifies the peak of the speaker’s / writer’s emotions.

 

7.8 The relation between dictionary and contextual meanings may be maintained along different lines: on the principle of affinity, on that of proximity, or symbol - referent relations, or on opposition. Thus the stylistic device based on the first principle is metaphor, on the second, metonymy and on the third, irony.

A metaphoris a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts. Metaphor can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts of speech, as in prepositions. Metaphor as any stylistic device can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. E.g. Through the open window the dust danced and was golden. Those which are commonly used in speech and are sometimes fixed in the dictionaries as expressive means of language aretrite metaphorsor dead metaphors e.g. a flight of fancy, floods of tears.

Trite metaphors are sometimes injected with new vigour, their primary meaning is re- established alongside the new derivative meaning. This is done by supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional words bearing some reference to the main word. E.g.Mr. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance and corked it down.”



The verb “to bottle up” is explained as “to keep in check”, to conceal, to restrain, repress. So the metaphor can be hardly felt. But it is revived by the direct meaning of the verb “to cork down”. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged. Stylistic function of a metaphor is to make the description concrete, to express the individual attitude.

Metonymyis based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent on proximity (contiguity).

The proximity (contiguity) may be revealed:

1) Between the symbol and the thing it denotes; crown, scepter;

2) In the relations between the instrument and the action performed with this instrument; e.g. His pen is rather sharp.

3) In the relation between the container and the thing it contains; e.g. He drank one more cup.

4) The concrete is put for the abstract; e.g. It was a representative gathering (science, politics).

5) A part is put for the whole; e.g. the crown - king, a hand - worker.

Metonymy represents the events of reality in its subjective attitude. Metonymy in many cases is trite. e.g.to earn one's bread”, “to keep one's mouth shut”.

Ironyis a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. The literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning. Irony is based on the opposition of what is said to what is meant.

E.g. “The garden bore witness to a love of growing plants which extended to many types commonly known as weeds. (J.Wain). Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day).

Homonymy Full homonymy – of words belonging to the same part of speech.

Partial homonymy – of individuals word-forms of different part of speech.

Homonymsmay be:

ü lexical (differ in lexical meaning)

ü lexico-grammatical (both in lexical and grammatical)

ü grammatical (in grammatical meaning only)

Homonyms may be classified on the basis of 3 aspects as well:

1. sound form

2. graphic form

3. meaning (dew to the meaning they are derived into homograpgs, homophones, perfect (absolute) homonyms)

The sources of homonymy:

ü diverging meaning development of a polysemantic word

ü convergent sound development of 2 or more different words (most potent factor)

The criteria used in the synchronic analysis of homonyms:

1. semantic 2. spelling 3. distribution

The problem of discriminating between polysemy and homonymy in theoretical linguistics is closely connected with the problem of the basic unit at the semantic level of analysis.

Context may be regarded in aspects as following:

ü linguistic

ü lexical

ü grammatical

ü extra-linguistic (of situation)

Conceptual (semantic) fields.

Hoponymic (hierachia) structures.

Classification of vocabulary into thematic groups is based on common contextual associations (the result of regular co-occurrence of words in similar, repeatedly used contexts).

The main criterion underlying semantic classification of vocabulary items on the paradigmatic axis is type of meaning relationships between words.

The criterion of common concept serves to classify words into semantic fields and lexico-semantic groups.

Semantic relationship of inclusion is the main feature of hyponymic hierarchical structure. Semantic similarity and semantic contrast is the type of relationship which underlies the classification of lexical items into synonymic and antonymic series.

Synonymy and antonymyare correlative and sometimes overlapping notions. Synonymous relationship of the denotational meaning is in many cases combined with the difference in the connotational (mainly stylistic) component.

Synonyms - words different in sound-form but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings and interchangeable at least in some contexts.

Antonyms - words different in sound-form characterized by different types of semantic contrast of the denotational meaning and interchangeable at least in some contexts.

Ways of forming words (according to A.I. Smirnitskiy):

Word-formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns.

As a subject of study English word-formation is that branch of English lexicology which studies the derivative structure of words and the patterns on which the English language builds new words. Like any other linguistic phenomenon, word-formation may be studied synchronically and diachronically.

There are 2 typesof word-formation in Modern English:

1. word-derivation being of 2 kinds like affixation and conversion

2. word- composition

There is every reason to exclude the shortening of words, lexicalization, blending, acronymy from the system of word-formation and regard them and other word-forming processes as specific means of vocabulary refreshment. Sound-and-stress interchange in Modern English are a means of distinguishing between different words, primarily between words of different pa5rts of speech.

The degree of productivity and factors favouring it make an important aspect in synchronic description of every derivational pattern within the 2 types of word-formation.

Three degrees of productivity are distinguished for derivational patterns and individual derivational affixes:

1. highly productive

2. productive or semi- productive

3. non- productive


Date: 2016-03-03; view: 2286


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