Building Background

Jonson’s ElegiesWhen critic Albert C. Baugh said of Jonson, “No one in his age could more tenderly express true sorrow,” he was no doubt writing of Jonson’s epitaphs, or tombstone inscriptions to commemorate the dead, and his elegies, or poems expressing lament or mourning. Two of Jonson’s finest elegies were those he wrote for his own children. Jonson expresses his grief over his infant daughter Mary’s death in his poem On My First Daughter. In his elegy On My First Son, he mourns the passing of his son, Benjamin, who died of the plague in 1603 on his seventh birthday. For many reasons, parents who lived during the English Renaissance often outlived their children, so Jonson’s poems were sure to have touched the hearts of many of his readers.

Jonson’s SongsJonson would often take inspiration for his songs from his reading of classical texts. To create his Song: To Celia, for example, Jonson actually reworked prose passages from the letters, or Epistles, of Philostratus, a third-century Greek philosopher. Song: To Celia first appeared in Jonson’s collection The Forrest (1616) and the same year in his Works. It was more than a century later, however, that British composer Thomas Arne (1710–1778) set Jonson’s lyrics to the music that made it a classic, publishing it under the title Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes. Today Arne’s captivating melody continues to be printed in songbooks and recorded by singers and musicians.

Poetic form: epitaph

An epitaphis an inscription placed on a tomb or monument to honor the memory of the person buried there. The term epitaph has also been used more loosely to describe a poem, such as “On My First Son,” which commemorates someone who has died. Notice the serious tone and somber mood of the following lines:

Farewell, thou child of my right hand, and joy;

My sin was too much hope of thee, loved boy

As you read “On My First Son,” determine which lines are characteristic of an epitaph.

Literary analysis: rhyme

The rhymes in Jonson’s poems help give them a musical quality. Rhymeoccurs when the sounds of the accented vowels in words and all the succeeding sounds in the words are identical. Rhyme at the end of verse lines is called end rhyme(joy and boy in the two lines above). The pattern of a poem’s end rhymes is its rhyme scheme.There are two basic types of rhymes.

• An exact rhymeoccurs when two words sound exactly alike except for their consonant sounds, as in joy and boy.

• A slant rhyme,or off rhyme, occurs when the rhyme is approximate, as in come and doom. Although rhymes normally fall on accented syllables, slant rhymes may pair an accented and an unaccented syllable, as in though and fellow.

As you read each poem, identify the rhyme scheme and notice where Jonson uses slant rhymes rather than exact ones.

Reading skill: compare speakers

> Though a poet may speak with his or her own voice in a poem, the speakeris often a voice or character made up by the writer. Two poems by the same writer may therefore have very different speakers. As you read the following poems by Jonson, record the images and words that directly express or imply the speaker’s feelings toward the poem’s subject. Notice how these images and words allow Jonson to create distinct speakers in the poems.

On My First Son

Song: To Celia

After Reading

Comprehension: Recall and Interpret

1.In On My First Son what does Jonson say was his sin and the price he pays for it? Given these statements, how do you think Jonson is handling his son’s death? What reasons does Jonson give to envy his son’s state? Why might he still lament this state despite all these reasons?

2. What would the speaker sacrifice for a kiss in Song: To Celia? How valuable is Celia’s kiss? Explain. What reason does the speaker give for sending the wreath? What is he implying?

3.Describe the speaker’s feelings for Celia. Do you think Celia returns his feelings? Why or why not?

Literary Analysis: Evaluate and Connect

4. Examine EpitaphWhich lines from the poem On My First Son would be the best inscription on a gravestone for Jonson’s son? Give reasons for your answer.

5. Interpret ThemeWhat is the speaker’s message about attachmentin the following passages of On My First Son?

• lines 1–2 (“Farewell, thou child . . . thee, loved boy”)

• lines 3–4 (“Seven years thou . . . on the just day.”)

• lines 11–12 (“For whose sake . . . never like too much.”)

6. Analyze Figurative LanguageAn extended metaphorcompares two unlike things at length. Identify the extended metaphor in Song: To Celia. What is its relevancy to the subject of the poem?

7. Analyze RhymeReread the two poems, noting Jonson’s use of exactand slant rhyme.Study the following rhyme schemes,and decide which one matches each poem:

• aabbcdeecdff __________________________________

• abcbabcbdefedefe _________________________________

8. Compare SpeakersReview the chart you filled in as you read the poems. How does each speaker feel about the person addressed in each poem? What is the main difference between the two speakers?

9. Compare Author’s PerspectivesReread lines 5–8 of On My First Son. Then compare Jonson’s attitude toward death with that of John Donne in Holy Sonnet 10 on page 162. Use evidence from the poems to explain the similarities and differences.

Literary Criticism

10. Different PerspectivesThe English poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson, wrote, “’Tis better to have loved and lost / Than never to have loved at all.” How might Jonson have responded to Tennyson’s statement? Explain your answer.

Before Reading II: Meet Cavalier Poets

KEY IDEA The Latin phrase carpe diem means literally “seize the day.” Many people subscribe to the idea that life is fleeting and that we should therefore focus on enjoyment of the present. But living for the moment can have its pitfalls too.

Andrew Marvell (1621–1678)

Andrew Marvell is often grouped with Robert Herrick and Richard Lovelace as one of the Cavalier poets, who were known for their musical, lighthearted verse. They regarded Ben Jonson as their literary father, and like Jonson, they tried to imitate the grace and polish of classical Latin poetry. The Cavalier poets even referred to themselves as the “sons of Ben” or “tribe of Ben.” Marvell combined the lighthearted and melodious style of Cavalier poetry with the intellectual depth and wit of metaphysical poetry.

During his lifetime, Marvell was known for his political activities rather than for his poetry. Unlike Herrick and Lovelace, he supported Parliament in the English Civil War of 1642–1651, and he served in Parliament from 1659 until his death. Marvell’s poetry was published posthumously; his true worth as a poet was not fully recognized until the 20^th c.

Robert Herrick (1591–1674)

Robert Herrick was an Anglican priest and an ardent admirer of Ben Jonson. An active member of London society, he was disappointed when assigned to a rural church in Devonshire in 1629. However, in 1646, under a parliamentary government, he was deprived of this post due to his loyalty to the king. In 1648, he published his only book of poems, Hesperides. At the time, the English were caught up in a civil war, and they showed little interest in Herrick’s light, playful verse. In 1662, Herrick was able to return to Devonshire, where he again settled down as a country priest and enjoyed a quiet life, although he wrote no more poetry. Today, critics appreciate Herrick’s poetry more; he has been called “the greatest songwriter ever born of English race.”

Richard Lovelace (1618–1657)

Richard Lovelace was a courtier, soldier, poet, and connoisseur of the arts. He was born into a distinguished military family, and from early on, he was associated with the extravagant court of Charles I. At age 15 he became a “Gentleman Wayter Extraordinary” to the king, and at 18, he received an honorary masters degree from Oxford University. When conflict erupted between Charles I and Parliament, Lovelace petitioned Parliament in the king’s favor and was imprisoned. While in prison, he wrote one of his most famous poems, “To Althea, from Prison.”

While Reading

Literary analysis: theme

The themeof a poem is the central message the poet wishes to convey. The Cavalier poets were known for their themes about love, war, honor, and courtly behavior. They frequently advocated the philosophy of carpe diem, a Latin expression that means “seize the day,” or live for the moment. A poem famous for its theme of carpe diem is To His Coy Mistress, in which the speaker beseeches a young woman to be his love now because life is short. As you read each of the following poems, note the imagery, figurative language, and other descriptive details that help convey the poem’s theme.

Reading skill: interpret figurative meaning

Often in reading poetry, you will need to interpret figurative language,or language that communicates ideas beyond the literal meanings of the words. The words in a figurative expression suggest rather than state information, thus helping to create an impression in the reader’s mind.

Metaphors, similes, and hyperbole are among the types of figurative language used in Cavalier poetry. Hyperboleis any expression that greatly exaggerates facts or ideas for humorous effect or for emphasis. For example, in To His Coy Mistress, the speaker says that he would spend a “hundred years” praising his beloved’s eyes, which would be literally impossible, but figuratively it expresses the depth of his adoration.

Use the following strategies to interpret figurative meaning:

• Read each poem once to grasp its overall meaning.

• Ask questions about comparisons that are implied or directly stated. What is being compared, and how are these things alike?

As you read the poems, use a chart like the one shown to list examples of hyperbole, metaphor, and simile, and to record your interpretation of their meanings.

To His Coy Mistress by Andrew Marvell

After Reading

Comprehension: Recall and Interpret

1.How does the speaker feel when Althea comes to visit him?

2.What argument does the speaker make in To His Coy Mistress?

3.What activities in prison give the speaker a sense of liberty?

4.Reread the last stanza of To Althea, from Prison. How does the speaker regard his imprisonment?

5.In lines 9–12 of To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time, what ideas does the speaker express about age?

6.In what ways are Marvell’s poem and Herrick’s poem similar in style? How do their styles differ?

Literary Analysis: Evaluate and Connect

7. Interpret Figurative MeaningInterpret and explain the following lines from the poems:

• lines 38–40 from To His Coy Mistress

• lines 3–4 from To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time

• lines 25–26 from To Althea, from Prison

8. Analyze ThemeIn To His Coy Mistress and To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time, which images of nature do the poets use to express the passing of time and the theme of carpe diem?

Literary Criticism

11. Different PerspectivesSome literary critics have stated that female and male readers are likely to respond differently to To His Coy Mistress. Do you agree with this observation? Explain why, and cite evidence from the text to support your answer.

UNIT 4. RESTORATION LITERATURE AND THE 18^TH CENTURY LITERATURE

Reading Focus I: from The Diary of Samuel Pepys

(Diary of Samuel Pepys)

KEY IDEA Samuel Pepys had no aspirations for publication. In fact, he took great measures to ensure the secrecy of his diary, writing his entries in an encrypted shorthand. Today, diary keeping remains a popular pastime. Yet with the advent of online journals and blogs, it seems to be evolving from a private to a more public activity.