The Time and PlaceThe first selection from Bede’s Ecclesiastical History takes place during the early 600s. In it, Edwin, who has recently conquered his enemies to become king of Northumbria in northern England, is discussing Christianity with Paulinus, his wife’s religious counselor. The second selection takes place in the late 600s in Whitby, England. It tells of the miraculous talent of Caedmon, the first poet to use the Old English language and verse forms to explore religious themes. Unable to read or write, Caedmon composed his poems orally and recited them to monastery scribes, who wrote them down to preserve them.
Did You Know?The Germanic tribes that took over the territory of the Roman Empire also adopted its religion, weaving Christianity into their own myths, as the author of Beowulf did. However, interest in the new religion faded in the chaotic and brutal society of the tribal kingdoms. As the 7th c. began, the pope, concerned about the decline of interest in Christianity, sent out a cavalry of missionaries to do religious battle. In time, the missionaries brought order to the society, building monasteries that became centers not only of religion but also of learning and civilized society. Monks were among the few people of the time who could read and write. They kept records, drew up documents, and wrote letters for others.
Literary analysis: historical writing
Bede was one of the first to write about English history. Historical writingis a systematic account, often in narrative form, of the past of a nation or a group of people. Historical writing generally has the following characteristics:
• It is concerned with real events in the relatively distant past.
• The events are treated in chronological order.
• It is usually an objective retelling of facts rather than a personal interpretation.
As you read the selection about the poet Caedmon from Bede’s chronicle, consider what it tells you about life in Caedmon’s time.
Literary element: historical narrative
A historical narrative is a factual account of events that occurred in the past. It is usually presented chronologically and seeks to provide a detailed, accurate description of life in a particular time period. As you read the two excerpts from The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, identify the features that make it a historical narrative.
Reading skill: analyze author’s purpose
The excerpt that you will read is an early biography;one of Bede’s purposes is to inform readers about Caedmon’s life. But there is a second purpose. It comes from the Preface to Bede’s History, in which he explains to King Ceolwulf his reason for writing about important Englishmen of the past. He believes that they will be good role models to imitate or bad examples to learn from. As you read, take notes about Caedmon. Decide which aspects of his life make him a role model.
Reading strategy: summarizing
A summary is a brief restatement, in one’s own words, of the main ideas and events in a literary work. Summarizing what you have read is an excellent tool for understanding and remembering a passage.
The Anglo-Saxons Embrace Christianity
King Edwin hesitated to accept the word of God which Paulinus preached but, as we have said, used to sit alone for hours at a time, earnestly debating within himself what he ought to do and what religion he should follow. One day Paulinus came to him and, placing his right hand on the king’s head, asked him if he recognized this sign.
The king began to tremble and would have thrown himself at the bishop’s feet but Paulinus raised him up and said in a voice that seemed familiar[32], “First you have escaped with God’s help from the hands of the foes you feared; secondly you have acquired by His gift the kingdom you desired; now, in the third place, remember your own promise; do not delay in fulfilling it but receive the faith and keep the commandments of Him who rescued you from your earthly foes and raised you to the honor of an earthly kingdom. If from henceforth you are willing to follow His will which is made known to you through me, He will also rescue you from the everlasting torments of the wicked and make you a partaker with Him of His eternal kingdom in heaven.”
Political History
Edwin’s Promise
This promise occurred in AD 626, after Edwin survived an assassination attempt and had a daughter born on the same day. Edwin promised to devote his daughter to God if the assassin was destroyed.
When the king had heard his words, he answered that he was both willing and bound to accept the faith which Paulinus taught. He said, however, that he would confer about this with his loyal chief men and his counsellors[33] so that, if they agreed with him, they might all be consecrated together in the waters of life. Paulinus agreed, and the king did as he had said. A meeting of his council was held, and each one was asked in turn what he thought of this doctrine hitherto unknown to them and this new worship of God which was being proclaimed.
Coifi, the chief of the priests, answered at once, “Notice carefully, King, this doctrine which is now being expounded to us. I frankly admit that, for my part, I have found that the religion which we have hitherto held has no virtue nor profit in it[34]. None of your followers has devoted himself more earnestly than I have to the worship of our gods, but nevertheless there are many who receive greater benefits and greater honor from you than I do and are more successful in all their undertakings. If the gods had any power, they would have helped me more readily, seeing that I have always served them with greater zeal. So it follows that if, on examination, these new doctrines which have now been explained to us are found to be better and more effectual, let us accept them at once without any delay.”
Another of the king’s chief men agreed with this advice and with these wise words and then added, “This is how the present life of man on earth, King, appears to me in comparison with that time which is unknown to us. You are sitting feasting with your eldermen and thanes in winter time; the fire is burning on the hearth in the middle of the hall and all inside is warm, while outside the wintry storms of rain and snow are raging; and a sparrow flies swiftly through the hall. It enters in at one door and quickly flies out through the other. For the few moments it is inside, the storm and wintry tempest cannot touch it, but after the briefest moment of calm, it flits from your sight, out of the wintry storm and into it again. So this life of man appears but for a moment; what follows or indeed what went before, we know not at all. If this new doctrine brings us more certain information, it seems right that we should accept it.” Other elders and counsellors of the king continued in the same manner, being divinely prompted to do so[35].
Coifi added that he would like to listen still more carefully to what Paulinus himself had to say about God. The king ordered Paulinus to speak, and when he had said his say, Coifi exclaimed, “For a long time now I have realized that our religion is worthless; for the more diligentlyI sought the truth in our cult, the less I found it. Now I confess openly that the truth shines out clearly in this teaching which can bestow on us the gift of life, salvation, and eternal happiness. Therefore, I advise your Majesty that we should promptly abandon and commit to the flames the temples and the altars which we have held sacred without reaping any benefit.”
Why need I say more? The king publicly accepted the gospel which Paulinus preached, renounced idolatry, and confessed his faith in Christ. When he asked the high priest of their religion which of them should be the first to profane the altars and the shrines of the idols, together with their precincts, Coifi answered, “I will; for through the wisdom the true God has given me no one can more suitably destroy those things which I once foolishly worshipped, and so set an example to all.” And at once, casting aside his vain superstitions, he asked the king to provide him with arms and a stallion; and mounting it, he set out to destroy the idols. Now a high priest of their religion was not allowed to carry arms or to ride except on a mare. So, girded with a sword, he took a spear in his hand, and mounting the king’s stallion, he set off to where the idols were. The common people who saw him thought he was mad. But as soon as he approached the shrine, without any hesitation he profaned it by casting the spear which he held into it; and greatly rejoicing in the knowledge of the worship of the true God, he ordered his companions to destroy and set fire to the shrine and all the enclosures. The place where the idols once stood is still shown, not far from York, to the east, over the river Derwent. Today it is called Goodmanham, the place where the high priest, through the inspiration of the true God, profaned and destroyed the altars which he himself had consecrated.
Caedmon
BackgroundCaedmon is the earliest English poet known to us by name, and Bede’s History is the only source of information about him. According to Bede, Caedmon composed many poems written in English, his native tongue. However, only his first poem, a hymn to God the Creator, has survived. Caedmon lived at Whitby Abbey, a religious community on the coast of England. It was founded in 657 by St. Hilda, who in Caedmon’s day was still the abbess in charge.
In this monastery of Whitby there lived a brother whom God’s grace made remarkable. So skillful was he in composing religious and devotional songs, that he could quickly turn whatever passages of Scripture were explained to him into delightful and moving poetry in his own English tongue. These verses of his stirred the hearts of many folk to despise the world and aspire to heavenly things. Others after him tried to compose religious poems in English, but none could compare with him, for he received this gift of poetry as a gift from God and did not acquire it through any human teacher. For this reason he could never compose any frivolous or profane verses, but only such as had a religious theme fell fittingly from his devout lips. And although he followed a secular occupation until well advanced in years, he had never learned anything about poetry: indeed, whenever all those present at a feast took it in turns to sing and entertain the company, he would get up from table and go home directly he saw the harp approaching him[36].
Cultural History
Benedictine Monks, such as Caedmon, were governed by the Rule of Saint Benedict. This Rule was a book of instructions regarding how community life in the monastery was to be carried out. Monks were not permitted to own anything, and they were required to participate in religious services at specific times each day. Their daily life was divided into periods of prayer, manual labor, and study.
On one such occasion he had left the house in which the entertainment was being held and went out to the stable, where it was his duty to look after the beasts that night. He lay down there at the appointed time and fell asleep, and in a dream he saw a man standing beside him who called him by name. “Caedmon,” he said, “sing me a song.” “I don’t know how to sing,” he replied. “It is because I cannot sing that I left the feast and came here.” The man who addressed him then said: “But you shall sing to me.” “What should I sing about?” he replied. “Sing about the Creation of all things,” the other answered. And Caedmon immediately began to sing verses in praise of God the Creator that he had never heard before, and their theme ran thus: “Let us praise the Maker of the kingdom of heaven, the power and purpose of our Creator, and the acts of the Father of glory. Let us sing how the eternal God, the Author of all marvels, first created the heavens for the sons of men as a roof to cover them, and how their almighty Protector gave them the earth for their dwelling place.” This is the general sense, but not the actual words that Caedmon sang in his dream; for however excellent the verses, it is impossible to translate them from one language into another without losing much of their beauty and dignity. When Caedmon awoke, he remembered everything that he had sung in his dream, and soon added more verses in the same style to the glory of God[37].
Early in the morning he went to his superior the reeve, and told him about this gift that he had received. The reeve took him before the abbess, who ordered him to give an account of his dream and repeat the verses in the presence of many learned men, so that they might decide their quality and origin. All of them agreed that Caedmon’s gift had been given him by our Lord, and when they had explained to him a passage of scriptural history or doctrine, they asked him to render it into verse if he could. He promised to do this, and returned next morning with excellent verses as they had ordered him. The abbess was delighted that God had given such grace to the man, and advised him to abandon secular life and adopt the monastic state. And when she had admitted him into the Community as a brother, she ordered him to be instructed in the events of sacred history. So Caedmon stored up in his memory all that he learned, and like an animal chewing the cud, turned it into such melodious verse that his delightful renderings turned his instructors into his audience[38]. He sang of the creation of the world, the origin of the human race, and the whole story of Genesis. He sang of Israel’s departure from Egypt, their entry into the land of promise, and many other events of scriptural history. He sang of the Lord’s Incarnation, Passion, Resurrection, and Ascension into heaven, the coming of the Holy Spirit, and the teaching of the Apostles. He also made many poems on the terrors of the Last Judgment, the horrible pains of Hell, and the joys of the kingdom of heaven. In addition to these, he composed several others on the blessings and judgments of God, by which he sought to turn his hearers from delight in wickedness, and to inspire them to love and do good. For Caedmon was a deeply religious man, who humbly submitted to regular discipline, and firmly resisted all who tried to do evil, thus winning a happy death[39].
After Reading
Comprehension: Recall and Interpret
1. What argument convinces Edwin to convert to Christianity? What does this reveal about Edwin’s personality? Summarize the analogy, or comparison, that persuades the king to convert. What do the sparrow and the storm symbolize?
2. Why does Coifi volunteer to be the first person to profane the shrine? Why might the “common people” pay attention to Coifi’s actions?
3. What is Caedmon’s life like before his dream? How does it change after the dream? Describe how Caedmon had to verify the quality and origin of his poetry. What does this reveal about the times in which Caedmon lived?
Literary Analysis: Evaluate and Connect
4. Examine Author’s PurposeA historical narrative tells the story of real people and events during a particular time and place. For this reason, a historical narrative contains many details about the period that it describes. These details are intended to present an objective rendering of reality. In your opinion, do the excerpts from Bede’s Ecclesiastical History fit the above definition of a historical narrative? What techniques does Bede use to make history come alive?
5. Analyze Historical WritingWhat do you learn from Bede about life in 7th c. England? Discuss facts about each of the following:
• monasteries • language and literacy
• poetry • people’s worldview
6. Theme Connections Analyze the poem that came to Caedmon in his dream. To what is heaven compared? Why was a humble poet so revered during his time? Do you think a poet could be as important today? Explain.
7. Examine Author’s PurposeWhat is particularly admirable about Caedmon? What moral message can be taken from his story?
8. Evaluate a PoemWhat is beautiful about Caedmon’s hymn, judging from Bede’s translation?
Literary Criticism
9. Critical InterpretationAuthor Kevin Crossley-Holland praises “Caedmon” as a “delightful example ... of [Bede’s] lucid and unaffected prose style.” Do you agree that Bede’s style is clear and simple? Write a paragraph explaining what does—or does not—make it so. Then share your ideas in a class discussion.
10. Historical ContextExplain ways in which Bede’s purpose and worldview shape the way he presents information. How might a modern historian present information differently?
11. Personal WritingWrite about a time when you decided to make a change in your life. Describe why you decided to make this change and how it affected your life. Then reflect upon how you might view changes in your life as a positive sign of growth. Save your work for your portfolio.
Reading Focus III: The Seafarer
(poetry from the Exeter Book)
KEY IDEA When people find themselves cut off from contact with others, the sense of isolation can be all consuming. It is not surprising that loneliness is a frequent topic in poetry written during the Anglo-Saxon era—an era during which disease, war, and other perils often wrenched people away from their
