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Etymological survey of the English word-stock. 6 page

The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. For example, "Sir Pitt came in first, very much flushed, and rather unsteady in his gait. "

Parallel construction

Parallel construction is a device which may be encountered not so much in the sentence as in the macro-structures - the syntactical whole and the paragraph. The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical, or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence, as in:

"There were, ..., real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the cakes and toast in. " (Dickens)

Parallel constructions may be partial or complete. Partial parallel arrangement is the repetition of some parts of successive sentences or clauses. Complete parallel arrangement, also called balance, maintains the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences, as in

"The seeds ye sow - another reaps,

The robes ye weave - another wears,

The arms ye forge - another bears." (P.B.Shelley)

There are two main functions of parallel construction: semantic and structural. On the one hand a parallel arrangement suggests equal semantic significance of the component parts, on the other hand, it gives a rhythmical design to these component parts, which makes itself most keenly felt in balanced constructions.

Chiasmus (Reversedparallel construction)

Chiasmus belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases. The structure of two successive sentences or parts of a sentence may be described as reversed parallel construction, the word order of one of the sentences being inverted as compared to that of the other as in:

"As high as we have mounted in delight

In our dejection do we sink as low. " (Wordsworth)

This device is effective in that it helps to lay stress on the second part of the utterance, which is opposite in structure.

Repetition

Repetition is an expressive means of language used when the speaker is under the stress of strong emotion. It shows the state of mind of the speaker, as in the following passage from Galsworthy:

"Stop!" - she cried, "Don't tell me! / don't want to hear; I don't want to hear what you've come for. / don't want to hear. "

The repetition of / don't want to hear is not a stylistic device; it is a means by which the excited state of mind of the speaker shown. This state of mind always manifests itself through intonation, which is suggested here by the words, she cried.

When used as a stylistic device, repetition acquires quite different functions. It does not aim at making a direct emotional impact. On the contrary, the stylistic device of repetition aims at logical emphasis, an emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the key-word of the utterance. For example:



"For that was it! Ignorant of the long and stealthy march of passion, and of the state to which it had reduced Fleur; ignorant of how Soames had watched her, ignorant of Fleur's reckless desperation ... - ignorant of all this, everybody felt aggrieved." (Galsworthy)

Repetition is classified according to compositional design. If the repeated word (or phrase) comes at the beginning of two or more consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases, we have anaphora, as in the example above. If the repeated unit is placed at the end of consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases we have the type of repetition called epiphore. Repetition may also be arranged in the form of a frame: the initial parts of a syntactical unit, in most cases of a paragraph, are repeated at the end of it. This compositional design of repetition is called framing.

Another variety of repetition may be called synonym repetition. This is the repetition of the same idea by using synonymous words and phrases which by adding a slightly different nuance of meaning intensify the impact of the utterance.

Enumeration

Enumeration is a stylistic device by means of which homogeneous parts of an utterance are made heterogeneous from the semantic point of view. For example:

"Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator, his sole assign, his sole residuary legatee, his sole friend and his sole mourner. " (Dickens)

The enumeration here is heterogeneous; the legal terms placed in a string with such words as 'friend' and 'mourner' result in a kind of clash, a thing typical of any stylistic device. Here there is a clash between terminological vocabulary and common neutral words. In addition there is a clash of concepts: 'friend' and 'mourner' by force of enumeration are equal in significance to the business office of 'executor', 'administrator', etc. and also to that of 'legatee'.

Suspense

Suspense is a compositional device which consists in arranging the matter of a communication in such a way that the less important, descriptive, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end of the sentence. Thus the reader's attention is held and his interest kept up, for example:

"Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw. " (Charles Lamb)

Sentences of this type are called periodic sentences, or periods. Their function is to create suspense, to keep the reader in a state of uncertainty and expectation.

Suspense and climax sometimes go together. In this case all the information contained in the series of statement-clauses preceding the solution-statement are arranged in the order of gradation.

The device of suspense is especially favoured by orators. This is apparently due to the strong influence of intonation which helps to create the desired atmosphere of expectation and emotional tension which goes with it.

Suspense always requires long stretches of speech or writing.

Climax (Gradation)

Climax is an arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance as in:

"It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a veritable gem of a city. "

A gradual increase in significance may be maintained in three ways: logical, emotional and quantitative.

Logical climax is based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them. This relative importance may be evaluated both objectively and subjectively.

Emotional climax is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with emotive meaning, as in the first example, with the words 'lovely', 'beautiful', 'fair'.

Emotional climax is mainly found in sentences, more rarely in longer syntactical units. This is natural. Emotional charge cannot hold long.

Quantitative climax is an evident increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts.

The indispensable constituents of climax are:

a) the distributional constituent: close proximity of the component parts arranged in increasing order of importance or significance;

b) the syntactical pattern: structure of each of the clauses or sentences with possible lexical repetition;

c) the connotative constituent: the explanatory context which helps the reader to grasp the gradation, as no ... ever once in all his life, nobody ever, nobody and others.

Climax, like many other stylistic devices, is a means by which the author discloses his world outlook, his evaluation of objective facts and phenomena. The concrete stylistic function of this device is to show the relative importance of things as seen by the author, or to impress upon the reader the significance of the things described by suggested comparison, or to depict phenomena dynamically. Antithesis

In order to characterize a thing or phenomenon from a specific point of view, it may be necessary not to find points of resemblance or association between it and some other thing or phenomenon, but to find points of sharp contrast, that is, to set one against the other, for example:

"A saint abroad, and a devil at home. " (Bunyan) "Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven. " (Milton) Stylistic opposition, which is given a special name, the term antithesis, is of a different linguistic nature: it is based on relative opposition which arises out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs, as in: Youth is lovely, age is lonely, Youth is fiery, age is frosty; (Longfellow)

Antithesis has the following basic functions: rhythm-forming; copulative; dissevering in their own peculiar manner.

ПИТАННЯ, ЩО ВИНОСЯТЬСЯ НА ІСПИТ

1. Etymological survey of the English word-stock: definition of native terms, borrowing, translation loan, semantic loan. Words of native origin and their characteristics.

2. Foreign elements in Modern English. Scandinavian borrowings, classical elements - Latin and Greek, French borrowings, Ukrainian-English lexical correlations; assimilation of borrowings. Types and degrees of assimilation. International words.

3. Word-formation in Modern English: the morphological structure of a word. The morpheme. The principles of morphemic analysis. Types of morphemes. Structural types of words: simple, derived, compound words.

4. Productivity. Productive and non-productive ways of word-formation. Affixation. General characteristics of suffixes and prefixes. Classification of prefixes. Classification of suffixes. Productive and non-productive affixes, dead and living affixes.

5. Word-composition. Classification of compound words. Coordinative and subordinative compound words and their types. Conversion, its definition. Shortening. Lexical abbreviations. Acronyms. Clipping.

6. Non-productive means of word formation. Blending. Back-formation. Onomatopoeia. Sentence-condensation. Sound and stress interchange.

7. English vocabulary as a system. Definition of the term "synonym". A synonymic group and its dominant member. Problem of classification of synonyms. Different principles of classification: according to difference in denotational component of meaning or in connotational component (ideographic or stylistic synonyms); according to the criterion of interchangeability in linguistic contaxt (relative, total and contextual synonyms). Characteristic pattern of English synonyms. The sources of synonymy.

8. Homonyms. Classification. Origin of homonyms. The English vocabulary as an adaptive system. Neologisms.

9. Traditional lexicological grouping. Lexicogrammatical groups. Word-families.

10. The concept of polarity of meaning. Antonyms. Morphological classification of antonyms: absolute or root antonyms and derivational antonyms. Semantic classification of antonyms: antonyms proper, complementaries, conversives.

11. The theory of the semantic field. Common semantic denominator. Thematic or ideographic groups. Common contextual associations.

12. Hyponymy, paradigmatic relation of inclusion. Hyponyms, hyperonyms, equonyms.

13. Phraseology: Free word combination and phraseological word combination. The problem of definition of phraseological word combination. The essential features of phraseological units: lack of semantic motivation (idiomaticity) and lexical and grammatical stability. The concept of reproducibility.

14. Different approaches to the classification of phraseological units: semantic, functional (according to their grammatical structure), contextual.

15. Academician V.V.Vinogradov's classification of phraseological units. The degree of idiomaticity as an essential requirement for the classification:

 

a) phraseological combinations;

b) phraseological unities;

c) phraseological fusions.

 

16. Stylistic aspect of phraseology. Polysemy and Synonymy of Phraseological Units.

17. N.N.Amosova's concept of contextual analysis. Definition of fixed context. Two types of units of fixed context: a) phrasemes, b) idioms. Two types of idioms. S.V.Koonin's concept of phraseological units. Functional and semantic classification of phraseological units. Formal and functional classification.

18. Phraseological stability. Proverbs, saying, familiar quotations and cliches.

19. Grammar in the system of language. Morphology. Parts of speech. Language and Speech. Linguistic levels. Practical and theoretical grammar. The main features of an analytical language. Morphology and Syntax. Word. Morpheme.

20. Different approaches to the classification of words. Scerba's classification of words. Notional and functional parts of speech.

21. Noun.

22. Article.

23. Verb.

24. Syntax. Types of sentences in English. Sentence: General. Actual division of the sentence. Communicative types of sentences.

25. Simple sentence: constituent structure. Simple sentence: paradigmatic structure.

26. Composite sentence as a polypredicative construction. Complex sentence. Compound sentence.

27. Semi-complex and semi-compound sentences. Sentence in the text.

28. General notes on style and stylistics. Expressive means and stylistic devices.

29. Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary.

30. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices.

31. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices.

32. Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices.

 

Etymological survey of the English word-stock.

Word-formation in Modern English.

 

Plan:

 

1. Etymological survey of the English word-stock:

а) definition of native terms, borrowing, translation loan, semantic loan. Words
of native origin and their characteristics;

b) foreign elements in Modern English. Scandinavian borrowings, classical
elements - Latin and Greek, French borrowings, Ukrainian-English lexical
correlations;

c) assimilation of borrowings. Types and degrees of assimilation;

d) international words.

2. Word-formation in Modern English:

a) the morphological structure of a word. The morpheme. The principles of
morphemic analysis. Types of morphemes. Structural types of words:
simple, derived, compound words.

b) productivity. Productive and non-productive ways of word-formation.

c) affixation. General characteristics of suffixes and prefixes. Classification of
prefixes. Classification of suffixes. Productive and non-productive affixes,
dead and living affixes.

d) word - composition. Classification of compound words. Coordinative and
subordinate compound words and their types.

e) conversion, its definition.

f) shortening. Lexical abbreviations. Acronyms. Clipping.

g) non-productive means of word formation. Blending. Back-formation.
Onomatopoeia. Sentence-condensation. Sound and stress interchange.

Recommended Literature

1. Kveselevich D.I., Sasina V.P. Modern English Lexicology in Practice. -
Житомир, 2000., 118 c.

2. Reading in Modern Lexicology: Хрестоматія з порівняльної лексикології. -
Черкаси, 2002-160 с.

3. Arnold I.V. The English Word. - L,, 1986. - p. 252-262.

4. Мостовий M.I. Лексикологія англійської мови. - Харків, 1993. - с. 151-174.


1. Etymological survey of the English word-stock Working Definitions of Principal Concepts.

Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is far from being homogeneous. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words. Numerically the borrowed stock of words is considerably larger than the native stock of words. In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary but the native words form the bulk of the most frequent words actually used in speech and writing. Native words are highly polysemantic and productive in forming word clusters and set expressions.

Borrowed words (or loan words or borrowings) are words taken over from another language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language.

The most effective way of borrowing is direct borrowing from another language as the result of contacts with the people of another country or with their literature. But a word may also be borrowed from source language but through another language.

When analyzing borrowed words one must distinguish between the two terms - "source of borrowing" and "origin of borrowing". The first term is applied to the language from which the word was immediately borrowed, the second - to the language to which the word may be ultimately traced e.g.

table - source of borrowing - French, origin of borrowing - Latin

elephant - source of borrowing - French, origin - Egypt

convene - source of borrowing - French, origin - Latin

There are different ways of classifying the borrowed stock of words. First of all the borrowed stock of words may be classified according to the nature of the borrowing itself as borrowings proper, translation loans and semantic loans.

Translation loans are words or expressions formed from the elements existing in the English language according to the patterns of the source language (the moment of truth - sp. el momento de la verdad).

A semantic loan is the borrowing of a meaning for a word already existing in the English language (e.g. the compound word shock brigade which existed in the English language with the meaning "аварійна бригада" acquired a new meaning "ударна бригада" which it borrowed from the Russian language. Latin Loans are classified into the subgroups.

1. Early Latin Loans. Those are the words which came into English through the language of Anglo-Saxon tribes. The tribes had been in contact with Roman civilization and had adopted several Latin words denoting objects belonging to that civilization long before the invasion of Angles, Saxons and Jutes into Britain (cup, kitchen, mill, port, wine).

2. Later Latin Borrowings. To this group belong the words which
penetrated the English vocabulary in the sixth and seventh centuries
when the people of England were converted to Christianity (priest
bishop, nun, candle).

3. The third period of Latin includes words which came into English due to
two historical events: the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the Renaissance
or the Revival of Learning. Some words came into English through French but some were taken directly from Latin (major, minor
intelligent, permanent).

4. The Latest Stratum of Latin Words. The words of this period are mainly
abstract and scientific words (nylon, molecular, vaccine, phenomenon
vacuum).

Norman-French Borrowings may be subdivided into subgroups:

1. Early loans - 12th - 15th century

2. Later loans - beginning from the 16th century.

The Early French borrowings are simple short words, naturalized in accordance with the English language system (state, power, war, pen, river). Later French borrowings can be identified by their peculiarities of form and pronunciation (regime, police, ballet, scene, bourgeois).

The Etymological Structure of English Vocabulary

The native elements The borrowed elements

 

I. Indo-European element I. Celtic (5th - 6th c.A.D.)

II. Germanic element II. Latin

III. English proper element (brought by 1st group: 1st c.B.C.

Angles, Saxons and Jutes not earlier 2nd group: 7th C.A.D.

than 5th c. A.D) 3d group: the Renaissance period

III. Scandinavian (8th-11th c.A.D.)

IV. French

1. Norman borrowings: 11th -13th c.A.D.

2. Parisian borrowings: (Renaissance)

V. Greek (Renaissance)

VI. Italian (Renaissance and later)

VII. Spanish (Renaissance and later)

VIII. German

IX. Indian and others

 

Ukrainian-English lexical correlations

Lexical correlations are defined as lexical units from different languages which are phonetically and semantically related. The number of Ukrainian-English lexical correlations is about 6870.

The history of the Slavonic-German ties resulted in the following correlations: beat - бити, call - голос, day - день, widow - вдова, young - юний.

Beside Ukrainian-English lexical correlations the Ukrainian language contains borrowings from modern English period e.g. брифінг, короткий інструктаж - briefing', диск-жокей, ведучий програм - disk-jockey; естеблішмент, організація суспільно-державних установ країни -establishment; хіт парад, конкурс популярних пісень - hit parade та інші.

Assimilation is the process of changing the adopted word. The process of assimilation of borrowings includes changes in soundform, morphological structure, grammar characteristics, meaning and usage.

Phonetic assimilation comprises changes form and stress. Sounds that were alien to the English language were fitted into its scheme of sounds, e.g. In the recent French borrowings cafe the long [e] is rendered with the help of [ei]. The accent is usually transferred to the first syllable in the words from foreign sources.

Grammatical adaptation is usually a less lasting process, because in oder to function adequately in the recipient language a borrowing must completely change its paradigm. Though there are some well-known exceptions as plural forms of the English Renaissance borrowings - datum pi. data, criterion - pi. criteria and others.

The process of semantic assimilation has many forms: narrowing of
meanings (usually polysemantic words are borrowed in one of the meanings);
specialization or generalization of meanings, acquiring new meanings in the
recipient language, shifting a primary meaning to the position of a secondary
meaning.

Completely assimilated borrowings are the words which assimilated completely in other language. They take an active part in word-formation.

Partially assimilated borrowings are the words which lack one of the types of assimilation. They are subdivided into the groups:

1) Borrowings not assimilated semantically (e.g. shah, rajah). Such words
usually denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which
they came.

2) Loan words not assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from
Latin or Greek which keep their original forms (datum - data,
phenomenon -phenomena).

3) Loan words not completely assimilated phonetically. These words
contain peculiarities in stress, combinations of sounds that are not
standard for English (machine, tobacco).

4) Loan words not completely assimilated graphically (e.g. ballet, cliche).

Barbarisms are words from other languages used by the English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents, e.g. ciao Italian — good-bye English.

The borrowed stock of the English vocabulary contains not only words but a great number of suffixes and prefixes (-age, -ance, -ess, -ment).

In many cases one and the same word was borrowed twice either from the same language or from different languages. This accounts for the existence of the so called etymological doublets like canal - channel (Latin - French), balsam -balm (Greek - French).

International words. There exist many words that were borrowed by several languages. Such words are mostly of Latin and Greek origin and convey notions which are significant in the field of communication in different countries. Here belong names of sciences {philosophy, physics, linguistics), terms of art {music, theatre, drama, artist, comedy), political terms {politics, policy, progress). The English language became a source for international sports terms {football, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis).


Date: 2015-01-02; view: 1768


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