Etymological survey of the English word-stock. 4 page

The complex sentence of minimal composition includes two clauses - a principal one and a subordinate one. The subordinate clause is joint to the principal clause either by a subordinating connector (subordinator), or, with some types of clauses, asyndetically.

The structural features of the principal clause differ with different types of subordinate clauses. In particular, various types of subordinate clauses specifically affect the principal clause from the point of view of the degree of its completeness. The principal clause is markedly incomplete in complex sentences with the subject and predicative subordinate clauses. E.g.: Your statement was just what you were expected to say. (The gaping principal part is outside the predicative clause).

Of the problems discussed in linguistic literature in connection with the complex sentence, the central one concerns the principles of classification of subordinate clauses. Namely, the two different bases of classification are considered as competitive in this domain: the first is functional, the second is categorial.

According to the functional principle, subordinate clauses are to be classed on the analogy of the positional parts of the simple sentence, since it is the structure of the simple sentence that underlies the essential structure of the complex sentence (located at a higher level).

According to the categorial principle, subordinate clauses are to be classed by their inherent nominative properties irrespective of their immediate positional relations in the sentence. The nominative properties of notional words are reflected in their part-of speech classification.

From the point of view of their general nominative features all the subordinate clauses can be divided into three categorial-semantic groups. The first group includes clauses that name an event as a certain fact. These pure fact-clauses may be terminologically defined as "substantive-nominal". Their substantive-nominal nature is easily checked by a substitute test: That his letters remained unanswered annoyed him very much. -> That fact annoyed him very much.

The second group of clauses also name an event-fact, but, as different from the first group, this event-fact is referred to as giving a characteristic to some substantive entity. Such clauses can be called "qualification-nominal"* The man who came in the morning left a message. —» That man left a message.

The third group of clauses make their event-nomination into a dynamic relation characteristic of another event or a process or a quality of various descriptions. It would be quite natural to call these clauses "adverbial". Adverbial clauses are best tested not by a replacement, but by a definite transformation. Describe the picture as you see it. —> Describe the picture in the manner you see it.

Subordinate clauses are introduced by functional connective words which effect their derivation from base sentences. Categorially these sentence subordinators fall into the two basic types: those that occupy a notional position in the derived clause, and those that do not occupy such a position. The non-positional subordinators are referred to as pure conjunctions. Here belong such words as since, before, until, if, in case, because, so that, in order that, though, however, than, as if, etc. The positional subordinators are in fact conjunctive substitutes. The main positional subordinators are the pronominal words who, what, whose, which, that, where, when, why, as. Some of these words are double-functional, entering also the first set of subordinators.

Complex sentences which have two or more subordinate clauses discriminate two basic types of subordination arrangement: parallel and consecutive.

Subordinate clauses immediately referring to one and the same principal clause are said to be subordinated "in parallel" or "co-subordinated".

As different from parallel subordination, consecutive subordination presents a hierarchy of clausal levels. In this hierarchy one subordinate clause is commonly subordinated to another, making up an uninterrupted gradation. E.g.: I've no idea why she said she couldn 't call on us at the time I had suggested.

7. Compound sentence.

The compound sentence is a composite sentence built on the principle of coordination and is derived from two or more base sentences. Coordination, the same as subordination, can be expressed either syndetically (by means of coordinative connectors) or asyndetically.

The main semantic relations between the clauses connected coordinatively are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, causal, consequential, resultative.

The base sentences joined into one compound sentence lose their independent status and become coordinate clauses - parts of a composite unity. The first clause is "leading" (the "leader" clause), the successive clauses are "sequential".

The coordinating connectors, or coordinators, are divided into conjunctions proper and semi-functional clausal connectors of adverbial character. The main coordinating conjunctions, both simple and discontinuous, are: and, but, or, nor, neither, for, either ... or, neither ... nor, etc. The main adverbial coordinators are: then, yet, so, thus, consequently, nevertheless, however, etc.

Питання 24 8. Semi-complex and semi-compound sentences.

The semi-composite sentence is to be defined as a sentence with more than one predicative lines which are expressed in fusion(зливання). One of these lines can be identified as the leading or dominant, the others making the semi-predicative expansion of the sentence. The expanding semi-predicative line in the minimal semi-composite sentence is either wholly fused with the dominant (complete) predicative line of the construction, or partially fused with it, being weakened as a result of the fusing derivational transformation.

The semi-composite sentence displays an intermediary syntactic character between the composite sentence and the simple sentence.

The semi-complex sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of subordination. It is derived from minimum two base sentences, one matrix and one insert. In the process of semi-complexing, the insert sentence is transformed into a partially depredicated construction which is embedded in one of the syntactic positions of the matrix sentence. In the resulting construction, the matrix sentence becomes its dominant part and the insert sentence, its subordinate semi-clause.

The man stood. + The man was silent. -> The man stood silent.

We saw him. + He approached us. -> We saw him approach us.

The semi-compound sentence is a semi-composite sentences built up on the principle of coordination. It consists of minimum two base sentences having an identical element belonging to one or both of their principal syntactic positions, i.e. either the subject, or the predicate, or both. E.g.:

There was nothing else, only her face in front of me. -» There was nothing else in front of me. + There was only her face in front of me.

The semi-compound sentence of predicate coordination is derived from minimum two base sentences having identical subjects. E.g.:

The soldier was badly wounded. + The soldier stayed in the ranks. -> The soldier was badly wounded, but stayed in the ranks.

9. Sentence in the text

Sentences in continual speech are not used in isolation; they are interconnected both semantically-topically and syntactically.

The primary division of sentence sequences in speech should be based on the communicative direction of their component sentences. From this point of view monologue sequences and dialogue sequences are to be discriminated.

In monologue, sentences connected in a continual sequence are directed from one speaker to his one or several listeners. Thus, the sequence of this type can be characterized as a one-direction sequence.

As different from this, sentences in a dialogue sequence are uttered by the speakers-interlocutors in turn, so that they are directed, as it were, to meet one another; the sequence of this type, then, should be characterized as a two-direction sequence.

Lecture 7. Theme: Stylistics of English

Plan:

1. General notes on style and stylistics.

2. Expressive means and stylistic devices.

3. Stylistic classification of the English Vocabulary:

a) Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary;

b) special Literary vocabulary: 1 .Terms;

2.Poetic and highly literary words;

3.archaic words;

4.barbarisms and foreign words;

5.literary coinages (including nonce-words);

c)special colloquial vocabulary:

1. slang;

2. jargonisms

3. professionalisms

4. dialectal words

5. vulgar words

6. colloquial coinages

Питання 25 General notes on style and stylistics.

There is a confusion between the terms style and stylistics. In linguistics the word style is used so widely that it needs interpretation. The majority of linguists who deal with the subject of style agree that the term applies to the following fields of investigation: 1) the aesthetic function of language, 2) expressive means in language, 3) synonymous ways of rendering one and the same idea, 4) emotional colouring in language, 5) a system of special devices called stylistic devices, 6) the splitting of the literary language into separate subsystems called styles, 7) the interrelation between language and thought and 8) the individual manner of an author in making use of language.

A very popular notion among practical linguists, teachers of language, is that style is the technique of expression. In this sense style is generally defined as ability to write clearly, correctly and in a manner calculated to interest the reader.

The term style also signifies a literary genre. Thus we speak of classical style or the style of classicism; realistic style; the style of romanticism and so on.

Finally there is one more important application of the term style. We speak of the different styles of language.

A style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. Each style is recognized by the language community as an independent whole. The peculiar choice of language means is primarily dependent on the aim of the communication.

Thus we may distinguish the following styles within the English literary language: 1) the belles-lettres style, 2) the publicistic style, 3) the newspaper style, 4) the scientific prows style, 5) the style of official documents, and presumably some other.

Each style of language is characterized by a number of individual features. Each style can be subdivided into a number of substyles. Among the styles which have been more or less thoroughly investigated are the following:

a. The belles-lettres style. It falls into three varieties: a) poetry proper; b) emotive prose and c) drama.

b. The style that we have named publicistic comprises the following substyles: a) speeches (oratory); b) essays; c) articles in journals and newspapers.

с The newspaper style has also three varieties: a) newspaper headlines(заголовок); b) brief news items and communiques and c) advertisements(реклама).

d. The scientific prose style has two main divisions: the prose style used in the humanitarian sciences, and that used in the exact sciences.

e. The style of official documents covers a wide range of varying material which, however, can be reduced to the following groups: a) language of commercial documents, b) language of diplomatic documents, c) language of legal documents, d) language of military documents.

A line of demarcation(розмежування) must be drawn between literary stylistics and linguistic stylistics. It is necessary to bear in mind the constant interrelation between the two. Some linguists consider that the subject of linguistic stylistics is confined to the study of the effects of the message, i.e. its impact on the reader or listener. Stylistics in that case is confined to the study of expressions of thought.

The subject of stylistics can be outlined as the study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices, on the one hand, and, on the other, the study of each style of language as classified above, i.e. its aim, its structure, its characteristic features and the effect it produces, as well as its interrelation with other styles of language.

2. Expressive means (EM) and stylistic devices (SD)

All stylistic means(засіб) of a language can be divided into expressive means (EM), which are used in some specific way, and special devices called stylistic devices (SD).

The expressive means of a language are those phonetic means, morphological forms, means of word-building, and lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, all of which function in the language for emotional or logical intensification of the utterance. In most cases they have corresponding neutral synonymous forms.

The most powerful expressive means of any language are phonetic. Pitch, melody, stress, pausation, drawling, drawling out certain syllables, whispering, a sing-song manner of speech and other ways of using the voice are more effective than any other means in intensifying the utterance emotionally or logically.

Among the morphological expressive means the use of the Present Indefinite must be mentioned first. In describing some past event the author uses the present tense, thus achieving a more vivid picturisation of what was going on. - Historical Present.

The use of shall in the second and third person may also be regarded as an expressive means. Compare: He shall do it (— I shall make him do it). He has to do it (— It is necessary for him to do it).

Among word-building means we fmd a great many forms which serve to make the utterance more expressive and fresh or to intensify it. The dimirrutive suffixed as -y(ie), -let, e.g. dear - dearie, stream - streamlet, add some emotional colouring to the words.

At the lexical level there are a great many words which due to their inner expressiveness, constitute a special layer. The same can be said of the set expressions of the language. Proverbs and sayings form a considerable number of language units which serve to make speech more emphatic, mainly from the emotional point of view.

Finally at the syntactical level there are many constructions which, being set against synonymous ones, will reveal a certain degree of logical or emotional emphasis. In English language there are many syntactical patterns which serve to intensify emotional quality.

Stylistics observes not only the nature of an expressive means, but also its potential capacity of becoming a stylistic device.

Stylistic device is a conscious and intentional literary use of some of the facts of the language (including expressive means) in which the most essential features (both structural and semantic) of the language forms are raised to a generalized level and regarded as aiming at the further intensification of the emotional or logical emphasis contained in the corresponding expressive means.

3. Types of lexical meaning.

A number of stylistic devices are based on the peculiar use of lexical meanings. A word is a language sign that expresses a concept by its forms and meanings. By concept is meant an abstract or general idea of some phenomenon of objective reality including the subjective feelings and emotions of human beings. The forms of the word show its relation to the other words in a sentence. The meaning of a word is the means by which the concept is materialized. The word may have a number of meanings.

Three types of meaning can be distinguished: logical, emotive and nominal.

Logical meaning is the precise(точний) naming of a feature(особливості) of the idea, phenomenon or object, the name by which we recognize the whole of the concept (direct meaning or referential meaning).

The potentiality of words can also be noted in regard to emotive meaning. Emotive meaning also materializes a concept in the word, but unlike logical meaning, emotive meaning has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker towards these things or to his emotions as such.

And finally we come to nominal meaning. There are words which, while expressing concepts, indicate a particular object out of a class. These words are classified in grammars as proper nouns.

Питання 26 4. Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary.

In accordance with the division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of the word stock of the English language as being divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable, the aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting.

The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character, that means it is unrestricted(необмежений) in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity.

The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words: 1. common literary; 2. terms and learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6. literary coinages including nonce-words.

The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. common colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professional words; 5. dialectal words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages.

The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary.

Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings. Unlike all other groups, the neutral group of words cannot be considered as having a special stylistic colouring, whereas both literary and colloquial words have a definite stylistic colouring.

Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. Literary units stand in opposition to colloquial units.

The following synonyms illustrate the relations that exist between the neutral, literary and colloquial words in the English language.

Colloquial Neutral Literary

kid child infant

daddy father parent

chap fellow associate

Common colloquial vocabulary is represented as overlapping(поєднання) into the standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary which falls out of standard English altogether.

Special literary vocabulary:

a) Terms.

Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and therefore with a series of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science. Terms are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic. They are mostly and predominantly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of science. Therefore it may be said that they belong to the scientific style. But their use is not confined(обмежений) to this style. They may as well appear in other styles - in newspaper style, in publicistic style, in the belles-lettres style and practically in all other existing styles. But their function in this case changes. They no longer fulfil(виконувати) their basic function, that of bearing an exact reference to a given notion or concept. The function of terms, if encountered in other styles, is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions.

There is an interesting process going on in the development of any language. With the increase of general education and the expantion of technique to satisfy the ever-growing needs and desires of mankind, many words that were once terms have gradually lost their qualities as terms and have passed into the common literary vocabulary. This process may be called "de-terminization" (radio, television).

A term has a stylistic function when it is used to create an atmosphere or to characterize a person through his calling and his consequent mode of expression. Sometimes terms are used with a satirical function.

b) Poetic and Highly Literary Words

Poetic words are used primarily in poetry. Poetic language has special means of communication, i.e. rhythmical arrangement, some syntactical peculiarities and a certain number of special words.

Poetic words in an ordinary environment may also have a satirical function.

Poetical words and set expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers.

c) Archaic Words

Words change their meaning and sometimes drop out of the language altogether. New words spring up and replace the old ones. Some words stay in the language a very long time and do not lose their faculty of gaining new meanings and becoming richer and richer polysemantically. Other words live but a short time and disappear.

There are three stages in the aging(старіння) process of words:

The beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent, i.e., they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. To this category first of all belong morphological forms belonging to the earlier stages in the development of the language. In the,English language these are the pronouns той and its forms thee, thy and itiirie; the corresponding verbal ending -est; the ending - (e) th instead of - (e) s and the pronoun ye.

The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English speaking community: e.g. nay (- 'no'). These words are called obsolete, і^ч**-*^

The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable, e.g. troth (='faith').

Archaic words are primarily used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels. The function of archaic words and constructions in official documents is terminological in character. They are used here because they help to maintain that exactness of expression so necessary in this style. Archaic words and particularly archaic forms of words are sometimes used for satirical purposes.

d) Barbarisms and Foreign Words

In the vocabulary of the English language there is a considerable layer of words called barbarisms. These are words of foreign origin which have not entirely(повністю) been assimilated into the English language. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms; e.g. chic = 'stylish '.

e) Literary Coinages (Including Nonce-words)

Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established words. Most of them do not live long. They are not meant to live long. They are coined for use at the moment of speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property - that of temporariness. The given word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to "serve the occasion".

The first type of newly coined words, i.e. those which designate new-born concepts, may be named terminological coinages or terminological neologisms. The second type, i.e. words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages or stylistic neologisms.

Many new coinages disappear entirely from the language, leaving no mark of their even brief existence. Other literary neologisms leave traces in the vocabulary because they are fixed in the literature of their time. This is not the case with colloquial coinages. These are spontaneous, and due to their linguistic nature, cannot be fixed.

Most of the literary-bookish coinages are built by means of affixation and word compounding.

Another type of neologism is the nonce-word, i.e. a word coined to suit one particular occasion. (/ am wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousined within an inch of my life.).

Special colloquial vocabulary

a) Slang

No one has yet given a more or less satisfactory definition of the term slang. Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English. Slang is represented both as a special vocabulary and as a special language. Slang is much rather a spoken than a literary language. It originates, nearly always, in speech.

The following stylistic layers of words are generally marled as slang:

1. Words which may be classed as thieves' cant, or the jargons of other social groups and professions, like dirt (- 'money'), dotty (- 'mad'), a barker (= 'a gun').

2. Colloquial words and phrases like for good, to have a hunch, a show (at the theatre) and the like.

3. Figurative words and phrases are not infrequently regarded as slang and included in special slang dictionaries, e.g. Scrooge (- 'a mean person'), blackcoat (= 'a clergyman').

4. Words derived by means of conversion, one of the most productive means of word-building in present day English, are also sometimes classed as slang, for example, the noun agent is considered neutral because it has no stylistic notation, whereas the verb to agent is included in one of the American dictionaries of slang.

5. Abbreviations of the /яб-type, for example, rep (reputation), cig (cigarette) ad (advertisement), as well as of they7w-type (influenza).

6. Set expressions which are generally used in colloquial speech and which are clearly colloquial, are also marked with the notation slang, e.g., to go in for, in a way, and many others.

7. Improprieties of a morphological and syntactical character, e.g., How come, I says, double negatives as / don't know nothing and others of this kind.

8. Any new coinage that has not gained recognition and therefore has not yet been received into standard English is easily branded as slang, leggo (let go')-

Slang is nothing but a deviation from the established norm at the level of the vocabulary of the language.

b) Jargonisms

In the non-literary vocabulary of the English language there is a group of words that are called jargonisms. Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve(зберігати) secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most of the jargonisms of any language, and of the English language too, are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them.

Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. In England and in the USA almost any social group of people has its own jargon.

Slang, contrary to jargon, needs no translation. It is not a secret code. It is easily understood by the English-speaking community and is only regarded as something not quite regular. It must also be remembered that both jargon and slang differ from ordinary language mainly in their vocabularies. The structure of the sentences and the morphology of the language remain practically unchanged.

There are hundreds of words, once jargonisms or slang, which have become legitimate members of the English literary language.

There is a common jargon and special professional jargons. Common jargonisms have gradually lost their special quality, which is to promote secrecy and keep outsiders in the dark. It belongs to all social groups and is therefore easily understood by everybody.

Date: 2015-01-02; view: 1139