The Greek Colonies in Ukraine

SEMINAR ONE

INTRODUCTION

Why do students in Ukrainian universities study their native history? Why is our government interested in that? There are several reasons. First, history is a necessary precondition for the development of national consciousness. Without national consciousness Ukraine will not have the future. As an old proverb says, “Those who do not know their past will not have their future.” When Ukraine was part of the Russian Empire the teaching of Ukrainian history was strictly forbidden along with the Ukrainian language. When the Nazi army invaded the Soviet Union Hitler also spoke out against teaching native histories in schools in the occupied areas. He argued that the knowledge of native histories would urge the subjugated peoples to fight for independence.

Secondly, history is a vitae magistra (teacher of life). The knowledge of history is important for avoiding mistakes in the future. History gives usaccess to the social experience and accumulated knowledge of the generations that have gone before.

Thirdly, history helps people understand their nation better, since the roots of the present events can be found in the past. Pyotr Chaadayev, famous Russian writer and philosopher, once said, “History is the key to understanding a nation.” Thus understanding the past is extremely important for understanding the present.

History is often used in politics for manipulation of the masses (during wars, revolutions, election campaigns, etc). To avoid that, a historical interpretation and a fact must be separated. Students should know that each fact or a historical phenomenon can have several interpretations. For example, such a phenomenon as Ukrainian Cossackdom is interpreted differently in Ukraine, Russia, Poland, and Turkey (from heroes to bandits). The activity of Ukrainian hetman Ivan Mazepa is also interpreted very differently in Ukrainian and Russian school textbooks. To find the truth a student must learn to think critically, to check everything, to compare different interpretations, and to find out what lies behind each interpretation (that is, what the aim of a particular historical interpretation is). The students should understand why different interpretations of the past exist and who benefit from each interpretation. History is not about remembering dates and facts but rather about understanding historical events. A student studying history first of all should try to understand why some events happened and other – not.

It is very important that history must not be mythologized (many patriotic writers unfortunately describe our ancestors as idealized superheroes). We should know the truth even if it is painful. Famous Ukrainian writer and public figure Panteleimon Kulish said that we must understand the worst traits of our national character in order to correct them. Only the true knowledge of the past can help us improve the present.

Students should also study history to understand politics. There is a famous saying: history is past politics and politics is present history. Thus, if you do not know history you will not understand politics and will be easily manipulated by politicians.

The Trypillians

The first homo sapiens on Ukrainian territory appeared about 40-12 thousand years ago. Their lives were rather primitive and their major occupations were hunting and gathering, since they did not know how to grow food. The first communities that could grow food appeared on Ukrainian territory about 4000 BC. The best known of the early agrarian peoples on Ukrainian territory belonged to the so-called Trypillian culture which originated along the Dnister, Dnieper, Buh, and Prut rivers. The name is derived from a small Ukrainian village (Trypillia) in Kyiv region where the remnants of this culture were first discovered by archeologists in 1896.[1] Trypillians lived in large villages with as many as 600-700 inhabitants. Some settlements even had as many as 15,000 (Maidanetske in Cherkasy region). Many buildings had two floors and were decorated with pictures on the walls inside and outside. The windows were round. Each building had a sacrificial altar, oven, and stove bench. The buildings were built according to a plan. A typical Trypillian settlement had a huge square in the center and streets radiating from that square in all directions. The settlements did not have fortifications. Periodically, every 60 to 80 years, Trypillian settlements were burnt and then rebuilt. Scholars cannot explain why Trypillians did that. Archeologists have found numerous artifacts of Trypillian culture: figures of women with enlarged genitals (apparently symbolizing fertility),[2] various tools, and remains of pottery with ornamentation. Since Trypillians did not have a written language scholars cannot tell much about that culture. It remains mysterious.

Trypillians lived not only on the territory of present-day Ukraine but also on the territory of present-day Moldova and Romania. Romanian historians call this culture the Cucuteni culture named after the Romanian village of Cucuteni where the first objects associated with this culture were discovered in 1884. Since this culture was first disco­vered in Romania, Romanian historians propose Ukrainian colleagues to abandon the name Trypillian in favor of Cucuteni. Ukrainian historians refuse to do it. European and American historians usually call this culture the Cucuteni-Trypillian not to offend Ukrainian or Romanian patriotic historians.

Trypillians disappeared enigmatically about 2000 BC. They may have been assimilated by newcomers, pushed into other lands or killed. Some Ukrainian patriotic writers want to see Trypillians as proto-Ukrainians,[3] but anthropologists say that Trypillians belonged to Semitic group, while Ukrainians are Slavs.[4]

The Early Nomads

The first nomadic tribes appeared in Ukraine approximately between 1500 and 1000 BC. They were called Cimmerians and were also the first inhabitants whose real name we know. It was Homer who, in the Odyssey, mentioned “the land of the Cimmerians” on the northern shore of the Black Sea. This was probably the first time when Ukrainian land was mentioned in a book. Up to about 700 BC, the Cimmerians inhabited the land between the Don and Dnister rivers. Their major occupations were cattle-breeding and wars. The Cimmerians belonged to the Indo-European language family and spoke Iranian. They were quite powerful and made military raids as far as Asia Minor and the Middle East.

In the early 7^th century BC Iranian-speaking nomadic tribes called the Scythians pushed the Cimmerians out of Ukraine into Asia Minor. The Scythians, who came from Central Asia, belonged to the Indo-European language family, although they apparently also included Mongol elements.

In the 5^th century BC famous Greek historian Herodotus, also known as “the father of history”, visited Scythia and described its inhabitants. Thus scholars got an important source about Scythian civilization. Scythians were quite cruel people. To develop warlike instincts, their warriors were encouraged to drink the blood of the first enemy they killed. They also made cups out of their enemies’ skulls and took scalps to decorate horses. The more scalps the horse had the braver was its master. The skin of killed enemies was used for making quivers (cases for arrows). Part of the prisoners was sacrificed to the gods. The rest were often castrated or blinded. Those unhappy warriors who failed to kill a single enemy in a battle did not have the right to take part in a victory feast and felt ashamed.

Archeologists found many remnants of Scythian society in graves. It was usual practice among Scythians that when an important man died his wives and servants were killed and buried with him. Besides corpses numerous expensive things were also put in graves. Rich Scythians were buried in kurhany (huge mounds). The remnants of kurhany can still be seen in southern Ukraine. The Scythians also gave names to many rivers in Ukraine (the Dnieper, Dniester, Don, Danube, etc). Their territory stretched from the Danube to the Don.

The Scythians were a warlike people and often made raids against other nations. In 513 BC Persian king Darius I invaded Scythia at the head of an enormous army. The Scythians applied the so-called scorch-earth strategy by burning grass (major food of Darius’ cavalry) and poisoning wells. Left without food and water Darius had to retreat. Scythia reached its zenith in the 4^th century BC under the reign of King Ateas. In 339 BC the Scythians invaded Thrace (present-day northern Greece and Bulgaria) but were defeated by Philip of Macedon (the father of Alexander the Great). The 90-year-old Ateas died in battle. That was the beginning of decline for Scythians. In 331 BC the Scythians, however, managed to defeat a strong Macedonian army that invaded Scythia.

In the 2^nd century BC, the Sarmatians, another powerful Iranian-speaking nomadic people from the east, defeated and assimilated most of the Scythians, the rest of whom managed to survive in Crimea, where they founded a new state – New Scythia with the city of Neapolis as its capital. The remnants of that city can be found near present-day Simferopol. Part of Scythians at the time abandoned their nomadic way of life and became farmers. The period of New Scythia lasted until the 3^rd century AD.

The Sarmatians dominated the Ukrainian steppes (Southern Ukraine) for 400 years until the 2^nd century AD. Their lifestyle and appearance resembled those of the Scythians. A striking Sarmatian peculiarity was the prominent role played by their women. An ancient historian stated that Sarmatian women followed “the ancient Amazon mode of living, going out on horseback to hunt, joining their husbands in war and wearing the same dress as men.” Archeologists found many graves of Sarmatian women buried with their weapons. According to ancient traditions only warriors could be buried with weapons.

The Sarmatian army was very powerful. Their cavalry called katafraktariyi was extremely efficient in battle, according to Roman historians. Both riders and horses were covered with iron. The Sarmatian cavalry became prototype of medieval knightly cavalry. In the 3^rd century AD the Sarmatians were defeated by the Goths,[5] a Germanic tribe that came from the west.

The Greek Colonies in Ukraine

By about 1000 BC Greece had become overpopulated. That caused many brave and adventurous people to emigrate and establish colonies along the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. In the late 7^th and early 6^th centuries BC, they founded several colonies on the northern shore of the Black Sea.

The richest of the Greek cities on the Ukrainian coast was Olvia,[6] situated at the mouth of the Buh River. Famous Greek historian Herodotus visited this city in the 5^th century BC. Other important centers were Chersonesos (near present-day Sevastopol), Tira (at the mouth of the Dniester, present-day Bilhorod-Dnistrovsky), Theodosia (retains the same name), Kerkinitidus (present-day Yevpatoria), and Panticapeum (present-day Kerch). The most powerful of them was Panticapeum that submitted over 20 other Greek city-states around the Azov Sea and became known as the kingdom of Bosporus.

The Greek cities had the most advanced culture of the time. They could boast of high level of education, arts, architecture, and science. They had stadiums, theatres and libraries. Most of them were democratic republics where all males had wide political rights. Women could not take part in political life (they could not elect or be elected to official positions) since the Greeks believed that women could not think logically.

Greek colonies on the Black sea became the bread basket of Greece. Beside bread they exported fur, honey, wax, salt, timber, and slaves (usually bought from Scythians) to Greece and Asia Minor. Their import consisted of vine, oil, fabric, ceramic, various luxuries.

In the middle of the 1^st century BC the Black Sea coast became part of the Roman Empire. Roman garrisons stayed in the Greek coastal cities until the middle of the 3^rd century AD when Rome had to withdraw its troops from Crimea to protect Italy from the barbarians.[7] Left without Roman protection the Greek cities were destroyed by barbarians (Goths, Huns, and others). Only Chersonesos and Pantica­peum remained under the rule of East Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire). In the 6^th century the Byzantines built two strong fortresses: Aluston (present-day Alushta) and Gorzuvit (present-day Gurzuf) on the Crimean coast

The Greco-Roman civilization on Ukrainian lands lasted over 1000 years and it had positive impact on the economy, social structure and cultural level of various inhabitants of our country.

The Tauri

In the Crimean Mountains and near them lived the tribes of Tauri.[8] Their major occupations were cattle-breeding, fishing, piracy, and farming. The Tauri were proud people and waged numerous wars against Scythians, Sarmatians, and Greeks. The Tauri were also known for their cruelty. They sacrificed sailors captured in pirate raids to their gods. According to Herodotus, the manner of their sacrifice was to beat the head with a club and remove the head; then they either buried the body or threw it off a cliff, and lastly nailed the head to a cross. Prisoners of war likewise had their heads removed, and the head was then put onto a tall pole and placed at their house “in order that the whole house may be under their protection”.

Scholars believe that such names of the Crimean peninsula as Tavrida, Tavrika, and Tavria are derived from the name of these people.

New Barbaric Waves

The Gothic period in Ukraine lasted from AD 200 to AD 370. The Goths created the so-called State of Hermanric (named after their chief) in southern Ukraine and adopted Christianity from the Roman Empire. The Goths were defeated by the Huns around AD 370. Hermanric, shocked by the defeat, committed suicide.

The Huns came from Central Asia. They were a mixture of various Turkic-speaking people with large Mongol elements. The Hunsheld the territory constituting present-day Ukraine and most of present-day Moldova until their defeat in Western Europe in the mid-5^th century. After AD 453 when their leader Attila died (apparently of a stroke during sexual intercourse with his new young wife) the Huns union disintegrated.

The next nomadic wave to break into southern Ukraine consisted again of an Asiatic, Mongol- and Turkic-speaking, and relatively primitive people, the Avars. Their invasion dated AD 558 and their state lasted about a century in Ukraine.[9] At the height of their power, the Avars ruled the entire area from Eastern Ukraine to the Danubian plain (in present-day Hungary), where they had their capital and where they remained after they had lost control over Ukraine. Avar armies waged long wars against Germans and Byzantines.

After the Avars other nomadic tribes from Asia – Magyars and Bulgarians– came to southern Ukraine (the steppe area). With time they moved to central and southern Europe and founded such states there as Hungary and Bulgaria.

In the 7^th century AD a new force emerged on the lower Volga: the Turkic-speaking Khazar state. The Khazars accepted Judaism, cont­rolled large territories and took tribute from the Polianians and some other East Slavic tribes. Although Khazars were a semi-nomadic people, they promoted the building of towns such as their capital of Itil and others. Their state was notable for international commerce and tolerance. Pagans, Moslems, Christians, and Jews mingled in Khazaria, where all enjoyed considerable freedom and autonomy to live under their own laws. They fought bitter wars against the Arabs and served as a barrier against the spread of Islam into Europe.

In the second half of the 9^th century warlike nomadic tribes of Turkic origin, called Pechenegs, came to southern Ukraine and pushed out the Magyars. The Pechenegs had been the major threat of the East Slavs until the mid-11^th century when they were replaced by another nomadic tribal union – the Polovtsians. The Polovtsians remained the main enemy of the East Slavs until the mid-13^th century when they were destroyed by the Mongol-Tatars.

The East Slavs

The origin of the Slavs is a complicated problem. Scholars from modern Slavic states tend to place their ancestors’ motherland on the territory of their nations respectively (Russia, Belarus, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, etc) Most Ukrainian scholars place the motherland of ancient Slavs between the Oder River (Poland) and the Dnieper River (Ukraine). They suppose that the Slavs originated in the area in the first half of the 1^st millennium AD, and then from about AD 500 began to expand in all directions. The Slavs can be divided into three major groups: the Eastern Slavs (Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians); the Western Slavs (Czechs, Poles, Slovaks); the Southern Slavs (Bulgarians, Croats, Macedonians, Serbs, Slovenes, Bosnians, Montenegrins).

As early as the 2^nd century AD Roman historians wrote about Slavic tribal unions – Venedians, Sklavines, and Antes. The first two lived in the area located west of present-day Ukraine. The Antes occupied the lands of present-day Dnieper Ukraine. Famous Ukrainian historian M. Hrushevsky considered the Antes to be proto-Ukrainians.[10] In the 3d century the Antes in union with the Goths often attacked eastern borders of the Roman Empire (the Danube area). Then in the 4^th century the Antes joined the Huns in their attacks on Goths. In 602 the Antes were defeated by the Avars and disappeared from ancient texts.

According to Byzantine chronicles, the Slavs were handsome people. They were tall and had blond hair and blue eyes. With time, however, due to numerous nomadic invasions the Slavs’ appearance changed. They are still handsome but the percentage of the blond people among the Slavs is not as high as it was long time ago.

The East Slavs consisted of about fourteen large tribal unions that inhabited Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus. Ukrainian lands were inhabited by several tribal unions: Polianians (Kyiv and Kaniv areas), Drev­lianians (Eastern Volhynia, around the Teterev River, to the south of the Prypiat River), Siverianians (Chernihiv area, to the left of the Dnieper along the Desna, Seim, and Sula rivers), Ulichians and Tivercians (between the Southern Buh and Danube rivers), Dulibians (western Volhynia), and White Croatians (Transcarpathia). Of these, the most prominent were the Polianians. Their administrative centre was Kyiv.[11]

According to ancient foreign chronicles, the East Slavs were known to be tough, stubborn fighters who could endure extremes of cold and heat and survive with a minimum of provisions. The Slavs were not nomads; the basis of their economy was farming.

Eastern Slavs’ religion was pagan polytheism, a belief in existence of many gods, in contrast to monotheism, a belief in the existence of a single god. The most revered deity was Perun, the god of thunder, lightning and war. Animals as well as humans were sacrificed to get Perun’s favor.[12] The symbol of Perun was oak. Other important gods were Svaroh (god of sky), Dazhdboh (god of the Sun), Stryboh (god of wind), Veles (god of cattle and wealth), Kupala (god of harvest and fertility), Dana (goddess of water), Lel’ (god of love), Mara (goddess of death and illness) etc. With the aim of worshiping their gods Slavs made idols from stone or wood. They prayed and made sacrifices in front of those idols in the open air.[13] Ancient Slavs burnt their dead relatives. In such a way they tried to clean the deceased from evils and open the way to a kingdom of light and eternal peace for them. Besides common gods each Slavic tribe had its own gods-protectors.

The Origin of Rus

The Eastern Slavs managed to create in the 9^th century a powerful state called Kyivan Rus or Rus. The origin of the word Rus is still a mystery. Around A.D. 1100 Slavic traditions were written down in the Chronicle of Bygone Years (also known as the Primary Chronicle), a record that combines facts and legends. According to the Chronicle, in about A.D. 860 the Slavic people from Novgorod (located in northern Russia) asked Vikings from Scandinavia for aid: “Our land is great and rich, but there is no order in it. Come to rule and reign over us.” The Viking leader Rurik accepted the invitation. According to the Chronicle, “Rurik came with the Rus,” which means “Rurik came with a (Viking) army.” In many ancient sources Vikings are called “Rus.” Some historians (mostly from Western Europe) believe that the name Rus is derived from this word. They stress the fact that early Kyivan princes had Scandinavian names: Askold, Dir, Helgi (Oleh), Ingvar (Ihor), Helga (Olha), Voldemar (Volodymyr). Thus, according to these historians usually known as the Normanists,[14] the Vikings in the 9^th century established the state called Rus.

Other historians (mostly Ukrainian and Russian patriots) give another explanation of the word Rus. The word Rus is not of Scandinavian origin, according to them. They associate Rus with the names of the Ros River and her tributaries Rosava and Rostavytsia in central Ukraine. According to these historians, usually known as the Anti-Normanists, the Ros was a Slavic tribe, living in the valley of the Ros River, that later merged with the Polianians of Kyiv region as well as with the Siverianians of Chernihiv region to form a new tribal union – Rus.

The Rise of Kyiv

According to the Chronicle of Bygone Years, in the first half of the 9^th century, two Vikings, Askold and Dir, left their lord Rurik of Novgorod, sailed down the Dnieper with their followers and captured Kyiv. In 860 they launched a sea raid against Constantinople when the Byzantine army was away fighting the Arabs. As a result of this raid the Byzantines had to sign a trade agreement which was favorable for Kyiv.

In 882 Kyiv was conquered by another Viking from Novgorod, Oleh, who united Novgorod and Kyiv and proclaimed Kyiv the capital and “mother of all Rus cities.” According to the Chronicle of Bygone Years, Oleh made a raid against Constantinople in 911. The result was quite a favorable trade treaty with the Byzantine Empire.[15] In 913 Oleg perished during the war against the Arabian Caliphate on the coast of the Caspian Sea. According to a legend he died from the bite of a snake.

Oleh’s successor, Prince Ihor, ruled Kyivan Rus from 913 until his death in 945. In 941, when the Byzantine army was away fighting the Arabs, Ihor launched a sea raid on Constantinople. Though Ihor devastated some regions in Asia Minor his raid was a failure. Ihor’s fleet was burned by the famous Greek fire.[16] Then his army was defeated by the Byzantine forces which had returned from the Arab campaign. In 943 Ihor collected a new army and launched another raid against Byzantines. This time Constantinople decided to avoid war and started peace negotiations. The resulting peace treaty of 944 was not as good for the Rus as that of 911. In 944 the Rus army attacked several Muslim cities on the Caspian coast and the Caucasus. Wars devastated Ihor’s treasury and the prince decided to raise the amount of tribute from subjugated tribes, especially from the Drevlianians (a Slavic tribe west of Kyiv) since the tribe refused to take part in Ihor’s military raids. Ihor perished in 945 when trying to collect a double tribute from the Drevlianians. He died in a horrible way. His legs were tied to the curved tops of two trees. When the trees became strait they tore Ihor into two pieces.

Princess Olha, the wife of Ihor, took revenge on the Drevlianians. She burnt their major city Iskorosten (present-day Korosten in Zhytomyr region). At the same time she promised not to collect more tribute from the subjugated tribes than it was agreed. Olha reigned from 945 till 964 while her son Sviatoslav[17] was under age. Olha was considered to be a clever ruler. The Chronicle of Bygone Years even said that she had “man’s brain.” In those times it sounded like a complement.

Sviatoslav spent all his life in military raids. He was a classic warrior-prince, simple, severe, brave, equally sharing with his men hardships of wars. Before attacking his enemies Sviatoslav sent a warning: “I am going to attack you.” In 964-966 Sviatoslav destroyed Khazaria, a powerful empire in the Volga region.[18] Then he engaged in long wars in the Balkans against Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire. Having achieved some impressive successes he even planned to move Rus’ capital from the Dnieper to the Danube. During his Balkan wars the prince showed himself as a cruel and merciless warrior. In Philippopolis, for example, he impaled several thousand prisoners (Bulgarian and Byzantine soldiers). Sviatoslav was killed by Pechenegs in 972 while returning from Bulgaria after an unsuccessful campaign against the Byzantines. The Pecheneg khan Kuria made a cup from Sviatoslav’s skull and drank wine from it before having sex with his wife. According to a Pecheneg tradition it could lead to the birth of a powerful ruler.

Date: 2015-12-24; view: 847