Electoral system essay

· What has your first year at the university been like? Have you ever regretted your choice? Do you have enough time to enjoy yourself after classes? What are the most difficult subjects for you here? What are the most interesting subjects? What facilities does the university offer for those who want to make progress in their studies? Do you have enough time to enjoy yourself after classes? What hi-tech facilities are available at the university? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using computer-enhanced methods in education?

· What British university will you take a post graduate course at if an opportunity arises? What makes it a great place to study at?

· Which is the oldest British university? Oxford is not only an ancient seat of learning but a popular tourist attraction, isn’t it? What makes it a popular tourist attraction? Why is it sometimes difficult for the residents of Oxford to live their daily lives?

2. Family, Home, Leisure

· Are you an only child? Do you agree with the idea that there are no benefits in having brothers or sisters? What makes you think so? How many children would you like to have in your family?

· What is a typical English family like? Who is the breadwinner in the average English middle-class family?

· How do you like the idea of shopping from home? Is shopping from home possible in this country? How can it be done? What are the advantages and disadvantages of this kind of shopping?

· What does leisure mean for you? What kinds of leisure activities are popular with young people in this country? Why do people have more leisure time now than half a century ago? Why do researchers say that leisure activities are affected by class?

· What is the most favourite private pastime for the average Briton? What do the British grow in their gardens? What other home-based activities are they engaged in?

· Americans are rather sociable people, aren’t they? How is it reflected in the way they spend their leisure time?

3. Work

· How do you see your future career? Would you like to work in Russia (your country) or abroad? Where would you like to work, in the state or in the private sector? What are the advantages and disadvantages of working in the state and in the private sectors of the economy?

· What business opportunities do new technologies offer? What are the advantages and disadvantages of working from home? Do you think that an accountant, a businessman or a financier can work from home? What does business success depend on? What qualities are important for a successful businessperson?

· What is the role of each individual citizen in the structure of the national economy?

4. Entertainments

· Mass media

o Where do you usually learn the news from – newspapers, the radio, television or the Internet? How do you explain your choice?

o What two major categories do British national newspapers fall into? What kind of readers do “quality papers” cater for? (What kind of information do they offer?) What are the distinctive features of tabloids?

o What does BBC stand for? Why does the BBC broadcast news in 35 languages? Do you watch or listen to BBC World Service? Which news agencies do you find most reliable? Why?

o Do you take weather forecasts seriously? Have you ever been misled by weather forecasts? What did it lead to? What is the weather forecast for the next week? Where did you get the information (Where can you get the information?)

Television:

o How can you prove that television has an enormous effect on Americans? Why do advertisers pay more money for time during popular shows?

o What is the most favourite pastime for the average Briton? Why are people becoming more and more consumers of entertainment?

o Why is it not quite accurate to say that people watch television? How does television influence the viewers? Who profits from sit-back and watch entertainments? What other pleasures of life are most people deprived of?

o What is your favourite entertainment? Why do you enjoy doing it? What role do new technologies play in making various kinds of entertainment more accessible to everyone? Why do doctors and psychologies describe computer addiction as a disease? Do you share this opinion? Why?

o What other opportunities does television offer besides entertainment? How do religious leaders of a new kind use the advantages of new technologies?

o TV channels sometimes offer programmes about mysterious things. Do you personally believe in the existence of aliens? What makes you think they (do not) exist? What do scientists say about the possibility of existence of aliens? What other mysterious things cannot be explained by scientists? What explanation can you think of? Some people now claim that the Egyptian pyramids were built by aliens. Do you share this belief? Why (not)?

The Cinema and the Theatre:

o What role does television play in supporting arts in Britain/Russia? How does television promote various art forms? What novels have recently seen a revival of public interest due to television? Do you think that screened versions of novels and plays can be an adequate substitute for books? The film version of a book is not always faithful to the original, is it? Which is more appealing to you, to read the original or to watch a film made out of it? Why?

o Which do you prefer, watching a play on television or going to the theatre? When did you last go to the theatre? What did you see? Who played the leading part? What are the main theatrical attractions in Moscow? What is the general attitude to the cinema and the theatre in the USA/Great Britain?

o What is New York’s theatre district? What does the term ‘Broadway’ imply? What is the indicator of success in show business?

o Would you like to work in the film industry? What about being an actor/actress? Have you ever taken part in amateur performances? When was it? Were you a success?

o Do you think actors and producers are influential people? What makes them influential? Would you like to become an influential person? In what way can you achieve that?

Sports

o Do you do any sports? What sports do you play/take? What sports facilities does the university offer? What is the highest award for an athlete? When and where are the next Olympic Games taking place? Why do some athletes resort to extreme measures in their efforts to win the Olympic Games? (Why do some athletes welcome any kind of scandal associated with their names?) Do you think a professional athlete can make a career in business when they retire from sports? What makes you think so? What kind of a person can make a career in business?

o When do children enter the world of professional sport? Why? What are the advantages and disadvantages for a child to begin a sport at an early age? What happens to young sport stars when they grow up?

o Do you agree with the idea that commercialization promotes the development of sports? What makes you think so?

5. Food and Drink

· Why has fast food become part of our life? What are the typical and most popular kinds of fast food? What kind of fast food do the British enjoy most? How was fish and chips sold until recently? What is the origin of the word ‘sandwich’? Why are doctors worried about the increasing consumption of fast food?

· Where does tea come from? What countries are the main exporters of tea?

6. Travelling and holiday-making

· Where are you planning to go for a holiday? Do you usually spend your holidays with your friends or with your parents? Why?

· Where are you planning to go for a holiday? Do you usually spend your holidays with your friends or with your parents? Why?

· How do young Europeans and Americans spend their holidays? What are the most popular places for holiday making in winter?

· Do you take weather forecasts into account while planning your holiday? How can the weather affect your holiday-making? How can the weather spoil a camping holiday?

· What kind of holiday can the average middle-class family enjoy? What is one entitled to when one buys a package tour? What are the advantages and disadvantages of package holidays?

· Many British middle-class families spend their holidays in various camp and caravan sites exploring the beauties of their own country, don’t they? What are the advantages and disadvantages of hiring a caravan?

· Do you always realize that the things surrounding us are real marvels or do you usually take them for granted? Is travelling by air a wonder or a routine thing for you?

7. City

· What are the advantages and disadvantages of living in a big city? If you remember, Jules Verne predicted a gloomy future for giant cities like Paris. Which of his predictions have come true? How can this flood of inventions be explained?

· Buckingham Palace is one of the sights of London which attracts crowds of tourists, isn’t it? Why? What other sights of London, besides Buckingham Palace, are worth seeing?

8. New technologies

· How much does society depend on computer technologies? What troubling consequences has technological progress led to? How can society control the misuse of new technologies?

· What machine-readable documents do we/you use? How long did it take you to get used to machine-readable documents? What possible risks can computerised businesses face?

9. Arts

· Literature

o What kind of literature do you prefer reading? Why? What famous writers were engaged in other professional activities along with their literary activities?

o Which is the highest award for people engaged in literature? What English, American, Russian and Soviet writers were awarded the Nobel prize for literature? Why was the Nobel Fund created?

· Museums and Galleries

o When did you go to a museum (an art gallery) last? What museum was it? How did you like it?

o What are the main artistic attractions of London? Where is the National Gallery situated? What kind of paintings does it exhibit? Which gallery exhibits the works of British artists? (Who was it founded by?) What outstanding English artists are represented in the Tate Gallery? What art galleries did you go to (would you like to go to) in London? What kind of paintings do they exhibit?

o What art galleries and museums in Russia attract the attention of foreign tourists? Why? What are the richest picture galleries in Russia? Who was the Tretyakov Gallery founded by? In what galleries can one see the works of Venetian masters such as Bellini, Titian and Tintoretto?

o What artistic centres of Russia, besides Moscow, are frequently visited by tourists? What are they famous for? How does tourism affect the economic development of such places?

10. Learning languages and cultures

· What other foreign languages besides English you would like to learn and why? In what countries do they speak English / French / German / Spanish? What languages are spoken in the UK? What other languages besides German and Romansch are spoken in Switzerland?

· What is the general attitude to language learning in Russia (the country you are from)? What are the advantages and disadvantages of learning a language from a native speaker? When is it better to visit the country where the language is spoken – when you are just starting to learn the language or after you’ve been learning the language for a few years? What makes you think so?

· Why is English becoming a language of international communication? Why it is important for a successful politician or businessman to know foreign languages? National cultures affect business practices, don’t they? What should a Russian remember about business behaviour with partners from foreign countries? / What should one remember about business behaviour with partners from Britain, the USA, Germany, Japan? Do you agree with the saying ‘When in Rome, do as the Romans do’? What advice could you give to someone coming to live and work in Russia (in your country)?

· What British or American customs do you find interesting or amusing? Are there any similar customs in Russia (in your country)?

· The USA is a multicultural country. Why do Americans celebrate Irish, Jewish, Chinese, French and other ethnic holidays and festivals? What are these holidays and festivals? What does the Fourth of July mean for every American? How is Independence Day celebrated?

· How could you describe a typical Briton? How do Britons differ from Americans?

· Is Wales an independent nation? What distinctive features make Wales different from the rest of the country? (Its own flag, culture, language) What languages are spoken in Wales? What is the most widely spoken language? What group of languages does Welsh belong to? Where are Celtic languages spoken today? What is the government doing to let the Welsh language survive?

11. Great Britain

· How can the political system of the UK be described? Who is head of state? Why do the English say that the Queen reigns but does not rule? Who does legislative power belong to? What does Parliament consist of? What is the seat of Parliament? Who does executive power belong to?

· What is the financial centre of the UK? Why is the City often called ‘The Square Mile of Money’?

· What industries does Britain excel in? Which sector or branch of industry brings more profit to the country?

12. The USA

· What state is the capital city located in?

· Is the USA an industrial or an agricultural country? What are farmers engaged in? What are the principal crops in the USA? What is the country’s main source of power?

Electoral system essay

2007/2008 University of Kent

Just after the election of Nicolas Sarkozy as President of France, the Balladur Commission started its activity. The newly elected President wants new Institutions adapted to today’s world. He asked the Balladur Commission to set a draft modernizing the Institutions of the Fifth Republic.

Electoral system is one of the things that this Commission should change. But when Balladur and Sarkozy started to speak of a dose of Proportional Representation, they have been strongly criticized, especially in the UMP party, which is the running party supporting the President. Surprisingly, Balladur didn’t speak about a revolutionary reform : he just wants 20 to 30 deputies to be elected through the proportional system for an Assembly of more than 700 deputies.[1]

So, why is this draft of reform so criticized ? Is France really allergic to proportional representation ? Numerous arguments are given in France against proportional representation. It is really surprising that this country doesn’t want to adopt such system because it is the general tendency in developed countries: all the recent reforms of electoral systems in industrialized countries tend to proportional representation.[2]

Therefore, we should wonder whether proportional representation would not be a good solution for France too. Of course, both systems – the majoritarian one and the proportional one – have advantages and disadvantages. We will try to measure the weight of these advantages and disadvantages analyzing them precisely and we will try to see whether a reform is desirable.

So the central question is: should France keep its majoritarian system which seems to be to a large extent undemocratic in the name of efficient governance? What are the proposed alternatives? Are they more efficient?

We will see in a first part what is the theoretical background of this question, presenting the arguments for proportional representation and for the majoritarian system. We will shortly present then the variations of electoral rules since 1870 in France and show that they are not at all rational but strategic. We will show in a next part that the majoritarian system doesn’t fit to France, especially in its present form. It will be argued then that a purely proportional system would not be better. In a final part, we will try to discuss different possibilities of a mixed system.

I. Theoretical background

It is important to wonder first what do we want the electoral system to do and to look for the best answer fitting this only after having found this question. The electors, but also some politicians and scholars, commit a serious error not proceeding in this order. They think that the choice of an electoral system should be made as it would be bought in a supermarket: “we walk round the store, inspecting the systems on offer, considering them and comparing them, and make-up our minds which one takes our fancy; we pick it up and go with it to the check-out counter”.[3] But this is a wrong vision.

The right questions we should first ask are: taking into account the choices of the voters in a constituency, which are the candidates in this constituency that would best represent it and which system will make them win? Taking into account the choices of the voters in the whole country, what would be the best distribution of seats among parties and which system will have as a consequence a result close to this distribution? These questions are very important because the goal of an election is to have the most representative composition of the Parliament and answers to these questions will help us to build a system in which this criterion is filled. Supporters of proportional representation and supporters of the majoritarian system have very divergent visions about this.[4]

The idea of proportional representation (PR) is that the distribution of seats among parties should be proportional to the distribution of votes of the electors on the national level. In a very theoretical and perfectly proportional ballot, a party which would get 30% of the votes would get 30% of the seats and a party which would get 10% of the votes would get 10% of the seats. But in reality no country has this system. Very often there is a threshold to reach to be represented in the house. If this threshold is 5%, a party getting 4,9% of the votes will have no deputy.

In a purely majoritarian system, the country is divided in constituencies. One deputy is elected in each constituency. Therefore, there are as many constituencies in the country as seats in the house. Deputies can be elected in one round or two rounds.[5]

The opponents of PR claim that it is unfair because it is possible in this system that several candidates would be elected in one constituency and no candidate in another one (but actually the term of constituency is not adequate here because in a purely proportional system constituencies don’t exist). In fact, parties choose which candidates are on the lists and the opponents of PR fear that peripheral regions would be marginalized in term of number of candidates. The interests of the citizens living in these regions would not be taken into account as much as if they would have more representatives. Moreover, the partisans of a majoritarian system support the “winner take all” principle. They believe that the winner should have an absolute majority in the Parliament to be able to endorse the electoral programme thanks to which its deputies have been elected.[6] If the government is composed by a coalition of parties, it is probable that no one of the campaign partisan programmes will be endorsed. Therefore, all the electors will be disappointed. Moreover, supporters of the majoritarian model believe in effective governance: they argue that a one-party government can put into force a policy easily.

On the contrary, supporters of PR say that this system is more representative. It enables minor forces to have some seats, which is almost impossible in the majoritarian system. For them, the idea of proportionality is equal to this of fairness: they say that it is logic to have more seats if you have more votes.[7] The majoritarian system doesn’t assure it at all. We can take a totally imaginary and extreme example illustrating this. If a party A has 49% of the votes in each constituency, a party B has 51% of votes in 51% constituencies (and no vote in other constituencies) and a party C has 51% of votes in 49% of constituencies (and no vote in other constituencies), the party A will have no seat, the party B will have 51% of the seats and the party C will have 49% of the seats. This means that the party B would be able to govern alone while it would have only 26% of the votes and that the party A would have no seat while it would have almost the half of the votes. This case is very theoretical but it shows the dangers of majoritarian representation.

So, as we see, no one of these systems enables to represent the citizens as well on a regional basis as on a partisan one. Therefore, it is very difficult to say which is the most representative.

Date: 2015-01-02; view: 1106