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Communication problemscan be caused by a number of reasons
There are two types of communication failure- one-way communication failure and two-way communication failure. One-way communication failureis a situation when either a pilot or a controller is unable to transmit or receive a message. Two-way communication failureis a situation when both pilot and controller are unable to transmit and receive a message.
In the event of one-way communication failure (i.e. aircraft can receive only), the controller may request the aircraft to make identifying turns, flash its navigational lights, transmit codes or IDENT signals on the transponder, rock its wings, etc, to acknowledge clearances or instructions
When it is known that two-way communication failure has occurred, ATC shall maintain separation between the aircraft having the communication failure and the other aircraft based on the assumption that the aircraft will operate in accordance with VMC or IMC.
In the event of any (one-way or two-way) radio communication failures the pilot-in-command shall 1) use all available facilities, take measures to re-establish communication with the ATC directly or by means of other aircraft. In such cases, if necessary, the emergency frequency 121.5 MHZ may be used. 2) transmit position reports and intentions, assuming the aircraft transmitter is operating, and prefixing all transmissions with “TRANSMITTING BLIND”. 3) turn on landing lights, beacons, and strobe lighting.
Adherence to the appropriate RCF emergency procedures depends on the flight conditions - VMC or IMC. In VMC: Pilots shall · set transponder to Code 7600 · continue to fly in visual meteorological conditions · land at the nearest suitable aerodrome · report the arrival by the most expeditious means to the appropriate air traffic control unit .
In IMC 1) Crew has to set squawk 7600, maintain the last assigned speed and level, or minimum flight altitude if higher, for a period of 7 minutes following the aircraft’s failure, to report its position over a compulsory reporting point and thereafter adjust level and speed in accordance with the filed flight plan;
2) In the event of radio communication failure directly after take-off, the pilot-in-command shall carry out approach according to the established pattern and land at the departure aerodrome.
3) If it is impossible to land at the departure aerodrome after take-off (due to meteorological conditions or if the aircraft mass exceeds the landing mass and fuel jettison is impossible etc.), the pilot-in-command has the right:
a) to proceed to the destination aerodrome according to flight plan. Complete a normal instrument approach procedure as specified for the designated navigation aid or fix; and land, if possible, within 30 minutes after the estimated time of arrival
b) to proceed to the alternate aerodrome at the flight level assigned by the ATS unit or at proximate lower flight level (in accordance with vertical separation rules), but not below minimum safe flight level.
ATC will consider aircraft experiencing communication failure if the expected report is missing within 5 minutes. Firstly, it is necessary to call the aircraft on definite frequencies (on current and previous sector frequencies) and identify whether it is one-way communication failure or two-way communication failure. If an identified aircraft experiences a radio failure, the radar controller shall instruct the aircraft to make a turn(s) or set another transponder code. If movements of the plane or another code indicate that the aircraft receiver is operating the controller shall continue to pass instructions blind and twice. Supervisor has to be informed and engineer has to be invited to check the equipment.
After attempts to establish normal two-way radio communication have failed, controllers are to carry out the following standard radio failure procedures:
feet between the radio failure aircraft and any other aircraft;
other aircraft in the presumed vicinity;
failure aircraft and relay messages;
• level, route and EAT (or ETA) to which the radio failure aircraft is assumed to be adhering; • the weather conditions at the destination aerodrome, a suitable alternate and, if practicable, in areas suitable for a descent through cloud.
During flight without radio communication at night, the crew shall, if possible, indicate aircraft position by periodical switching on onboard landing lights or by onboard lights flashing. In order to avoid miscommunication both pilots and controllers have to
The most significant example is the North American phrase “Taxi into position and hold.” It has the same meaning as the ICAO phrase “Line up and wait,” whereas the ICAO phrase “Taxi to holding position” is a clearance to taxi to and hold at a point clear of the runway. Always read back the necessary clearances: √ ATC route clearances √ Clearances and instructions to enter, land, take off, hold short of, cross or backtrack on RW √ Runway in use √ Altimeter setting √ ATC transponder code √ Altitude or flight level instructions √ Heading and speed instructions √ Transition levels · Undergo constant enhanced training as for communication for situational awareness
Miscommunication can cause RW incursion.
Runway incursion is called "Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take-off of aircraft". We can speak about typical scenarios of RW incursion: · Controller-related situation: not having visual contact with the aircraft due to poor visibility controller instructs one plane to clear the RW but pilots misunderstand the instruction or appear on the RW by mistake and without checking their position ATC clears another aircraft for take-off. · Pilot-related situation: pilots at unfamiliar airport acknowledge taxing instructions but being disorientated by night time or hot spots enter the active RW. · Driver-related situation: ground vehicle driver crosses the RW without ATC clearance. There are also contributing factors: poor visibility, night time when there is no visual contact, complexity of airport marks and signs that can confuse the pilots, usage of non-standard phraseology that can result in misunderstanding.
BIRD STRIKE A BIRD STRIKE is a collision between a bird or flock of birds and an aircraft in flight or on a take-off or landing roll. The term usually covers other wildlife strikes - with bats or ground animals. It is a common threat to aircraft safety and has caused a number of fatal accidents.
Different factors can affect the likelihood of the bird strike:
to the water surface - seas, rivers, lakes, residential area, city rubbish dumps, breeding places, agricultural fields as these places attract the birds)
breeding place and in the evening when they come back)
The seriousness of the bird strike depends on
The most vulnerable parts of the aircraft are
In case of bird strike on windscreen it can cause windshield dirtiness that can lead to deterioration of view. In some cases the windshield can crack due to bird strike and it will lead to communication problems due to wind blast and sometimes pilots’ incapacitation or depressurization.
In case of bird strike on engine it can cause engine surge (as the blades may be distorted) or flame out (as bird’s feathers may ignite or crippled blades may be sucked into a compressor and damage it) and as a result impairing flying characteristics of the aircraft. Bird strike can also cause engine failure and create an emergency. Depending on how many engines are affected by the birds it may make levels and heading difficult to maintain or even forced landing outside the airport or ditching.
Another damage from the birds impact can be to extended landing gear assemblies in flight. It can lead to sufficient malfunction of brakes or nose gear steering systems and cause directional control problems during a subsequent landing roll.
Thus, the bird strike can result in
Birds that can pose risk to the aircraft in our region are
The opportunities to mitigate the risk of hazardous bird strikes are centered on airports, because this is where the majority of strikes occur.
In order to prevent bird strikes different precautions can be used
DEPRESSURIZATION
Pressurization problems can be caused by:
· Technical reasons (malfunctioning of the air-conditioning system, electrical system failure, engine failure because engine supplies the work of air conditioning system , metal fatigue, glass fatigue) · Outside factor (bird strike on a windscreen at high level, detachment of engine that can damage the fuselage, encountering adverse weather conditions, such as severe turbulence, lightning strike that can cause significant damage of the construction of the aircraft) · Human factor (explosion of bomb, shooting, not properly closed door, poor maintenance before departure) Any damage to the system could result in a leakage and consequently a rapid loss of cabin pressure.
Pressurization problems can cause an immediate danger to the aircraft, as the reduction of the cabin pressure will affect the crew and the passengers. The time during which people can retain consciousness without oxygen depends on the altitude flown, the size of the oxygen leak and the dimensions of the fuselage . It can vary from 4 to 30 seconds.
There are two types of depressurization: rapid (explosive) and slow (gradual). o A rapid decompression is a drop in cabin pressure in a matter of seconds. It occurs faster than the lungs can decompress the air. Pilots and passengers are short of time to don the oxygen masks, otherwise they will faint.
o A slow decompression is a gradual change of cabin pressure. It is complicated to determine it without automatic visual and aural warning system.
All of them are very dangerous as during explosive and rapid depressurization pilots are pressed for time to react while during slow one they can not even notice it and faint. Rapid decompression is easy to recognize as it is accompanied with a loud bang, sudden fogging of the air. During decompression at high altitude the temperature inside the aircraft will plummet to the outside ambient temperature with the danger of frostbite. So, cabin pressure will instantly drop well below the freezing point while moisture in the air condenses to and forms a thick fog. Slow depressurization also poses the hazard as pilots can not notice it and thus faint. In all these critical conditions crew will have to retain consciousness by donning the oxygen masks and initiating an emergency descent.
So, people can suffer from · Hypoxia (condition of oxygen starvation in the human’s body that can lead to sluggish thinking, dimmed vision, impaired motor skills- not able to coordinate body movements, loss of consciousness and even death) · Decompression sickness (disease caused by the rapid loss of pressure of inhaled air mass which being dissolved in the blood starts producing bubbles that block the bloodstream. It can result in paralysis and death) · Altitude sickness (disease state which is connected with oxygen starvation due to low partial oxygen pressure in the air at high altitudes; it can cause fatigue, nausea, sleepiness, dehydration of the body) In case of pressurization problems, the pilots 1) will put oxygen masks on and check if the oxygen masks were activated in passenger cabin automatically. In this case the headset is switched automatically to a cabin loudspeaker, with the pilot using the microphone in the mask which may reduce the readability to ATC.
2)Then they start emergency descent to the safe altitude (3000-4000 metres) where people can breathe easily without masks, set all thrust levers to idle, extend full speed brakes, descend at maximum permitted speed to MEA (FL 100) or minimum obstacle clearance altitude. In case of structural damage is suspected, reduce the speed as appropriate.
3) Simultaneously pilots inform ATC about the situation. If ATC can’t be contacted they need to set squawk 7700 or transmit a distress message on emergency frequency.
4) After reaching the safe altitude the crew will evaluate the situation and make up decision to proceed to the nearest alternative or direct to the airport of destination at low altitude. This decision depends on the circumstances of the depressurization, the condition of the aircraft and the condition of the passengers.
Oxygen is supplied to the passenger for about 10-12 minutes which is enough to perform descent to a safe altitude. But if the aircraft flies over the mountainous area where the range of mounts doesn’t allow pilots to get minimum safe altitude, descent will be extended and thus more oxygen will be necessary for sustaining life of passengers on board the aircraft.
ATC has to react quickly:
· Diversion · Injuries · ACFT damage
Controller has to be aware of the fact that decompression will reduce quality of RTF communication due to oxygen mask. Some of the possible actions are:
ENGINE FAILURE
· Technical reasons( √fuel system problems such as fuel contamination, fuel leak, fuel exhaustion, fuel control system malfunction, wrong fuel calculation; √ hydraulic system failure; √ electrical system malfunction; √ high or low oil pressure √ metal fatigue-demolishing of pylon which attaches engine to the wing) · Weather conditions(icing , hail storm that can impair the work of engine or lead to its stall; volcanic ash- volcanic pieces of rock get into engine, melt, stick to the compressor and cause flame out or failure, lightning strike )
· Human factor (pilot’s error- e.g. shutting down running engine by mistake due to stress or high work load; poor maintenance service on the ground)
· Outside factor (bird strike on the engine – depending on the size of the bird it can cause blades damage; overheating due to ingestion of a foreign object or debris on the RW)
There are various engine problems: √engine cut off √engine fire √high vibration
There are two types of engine failure - “contained” engine failure means failure when components might separate inside the engine but either remain within the engine or exit the engine through the tail pipe. - “uncontained” engine failure canpose a greater risk as ejected debris from the engine exit it at high speeds in other directions, posing potential danger to pressurized aircraft structure.
Consequences.
The consequences of an engine failure depend on the number of engines the aircraft has. Multi-engine aircraft. The loss of one engine on a multi-engine aircraft will reduce its power and the ability to fly normally:
Single-engine aircraft. The engine failure of a single-engine aircraft will be followed by · loss of electrical power · loss of navigational systems · loss of communication systems · loss of cabin pressure · manual gear extension
In case of engine failure during rolling, take-off should be aborted if it occurred before V1 speed, and after a complete stop the situation should be reported to ATC. If it happened after V1 speed the crew must
Deviation from SID may be expected - if the engine failure occurs at take-off or after rotation, the crew might not follow the published SID and any associated noise abatement procedures.
It is possible to expect:
In case of engine failure on multi-engine aircraft at cruising level the crew has to increase power on running engine, shut down affected engine, analyze the situation, attempt to restart the engine (if they are sure there is no fire) and decide whether to fly to the nearest alternative or to proceed to the destination (if fuel amount permits as they will fly at lower altitude and it will result in more fuel consumption). The aircraft will maintain the lower levels in order to restart affected engine or APU. If the crew decided to restart the engine, necessary increase of speed is provided by descending. Sometimes total engine failure may result in depressurization as air conditioning system is supplied by engines. In this case emergency descent without notifying ATC may be expected.
In case of engine failure on single-engine or multiple engine failure on multi-engine aircraft pilots need to start gliding. The crew will seek the best glide ratio in order to attempt to restart the engine(s) and/or to reach next suitable aerodrome/airfield or a place suitable for emergency landing. In this case approach speed may be higher than prescribed, landing distance may be increased. So, this situation can cause
ATC has to
If needed, inform the crew about next suitable aerodrome and provide alternate aerodrome details (RWY in use, length, surface, elevation, ILS- and NAV-frequencies) and weather information. Inform landing aerodrome of the inbound traffic with engine failure
ATC has to keep in mind that due to engine failure on multi-engine aircraft work load on the crew increases, as they have to perform emergency procedures. So, controller may be informed with some delay and radio communication will be resumed after report of the crew. FIRE ON BOARD
Causes Fire may be caused by a number of reasons:
√ Passengers’ error. Most carriers prohibit smoking on board the aircraft. This, coupled with the use of fire resistant materials, has reduced the likelihood of fire caused by a cigarette. Nevertheless, despite it minority of passengers continue to smoke in the lavatories. Thus, not extinguished cigarette can pose risk to the safety. Explosion of bomb by terrorists can obviously lead to fire.
√ Cabin crew error. Airlines comment that most in-flight and ground fire/smoke events relate to the galley and involve some kind of electrical equipment. Oven fires may occur because of items (which are not heat resistant) being placed inside the oven by FAs (e.g. oven being used as storage place for folders or checklists, or to dry shoes) or because of overheating, or electrical overload/short circuit. In addition to ovens, there is a lot of equipment in the galley wrong usage of which can cause fire (e.g. coffee or water heaters on without any water in).
√ Airport security officers’ error. Overhead compartment fire is often caused by passengers’ hand luggage which was not thoroughly checked (e.g. nail polish remover, medicinal or toilet articles, matches, and other prohibited items).
√ Flight crew’s / loaders’ error. Loosely packed dangerous goods (which are not thoroughly controlled by pilots) by loaders can ignite due to friction.
The International Civil Aviation Organization defines Dangerous goods as “ articles or substances which are capable of posing risk to health, safety, property and the environment.”
Dangerous goods fall into 9 classes:
devices, for example, ammunition, and fireworks.
These substances are sensitive to impact or friction, or may create a dangerous reaction when in contact with other substances. They may be explosive and burn rapidly. Some examples are fertilizers and chemicals.
These substances can cause death or injury if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through the skin. Examples are pesticides and poisons, mercury.
Dangerous goods fall into three types:
Goods which are strictly prohibited for transportation in the cabin are • Explosives - fireworks, flares, toy gun caps • Compressed gases - filled or partly filled aqualung cylinders • Flammable liquids and solids - lighter fuel, matches, paints • Oxidizers - some bleaching powders • Poisons • Irritating materials - tear gas devices • Infectious substances - live virus materials • Radioactive materials - medical or research samples which contain radioactive sources • Corrosives - acids, etc. • Magnetized materials - instruments containing magnets
Consequences Fire on board can result in · High stress level in the cockpit · Engine failure · Pressurization problems · Shortest high speed vector to land · Poor R/T (due to oxygen mask) or loss of R/T · Passengers’ evacuation · RWY blocked Types of fire Engine fire. Engine fire is normally detected and contained satisfactory by the aircraft fire detection and suppression systems. But there are such situations when fire can not be determined by onboard systems and it can spread to the wing and the fuselage. Even when engine fire was eliminated, the crew need to land the aircraft as soon as possible so that the fire will not break out again.
Cabin fire. Cabin fire can be easily detected and put out by usage of fire extinguishes. It is also advisable to perform landing as soon as possible in order to investigate the problem.
Hidden fire. Hidden fire can be detected by onboard systems or by passengers noticing smoke or fume. It is very hazardous as smoke can fill up the cabin and can reduce visibility and lead to suffocation and choking.
Effects
At the first indication, or suspicion, of smoke and fumes, or fire within the aircraft the flight crew will don smoke goggles and oxygen masks. The wearing of oxygen masks may make the voice messages more difficult to understand.
Secondly, the crew will attempt to find the source of the smoke or fire and eliminate it. Different emergency equipment may be used, such as smoke detectors, fire extinguishes, fire gloves, fire goggles, hoods, crash axe, emergency chutes for evacuation.
When crew members manage to extinguish fire, the captain will evaluate the situation and make up his mind what further actions to take. But in the majority of cases he’ll give preference to land as soon as possible for further investigation if any systems were affected by fire.
If fire is uncontrollable and pilots will -put oxygen masks on if there is smoke or fire in the cockpit -initiate emergency descent without any delay (otherwise it will take an aircraft a few minutes to burst into flames and burn fully) -set squawk 7700 -declare Mayday - proceed to the nearest suitable airport and request priority for landing or - try to find an appropriate place for landing ahead of them (off-field landing or ditching) - request fire brigade, ambulance, search and rescue team - upon landing start immediate evacuation of passengers (After disembarkation for safety reasons they have to be removed on 100metres distance from a crippled aircraft.)
If there is engine fire, pilots need to - increase the work of running engine - shut down affected one - activate fire extinguishing system - stop fuel and hydraulic liquid supply - close air conditioning supply from the engine - start APU for auxiliary electrical power - start emergency descend - set squawk 7700 - declare Mayday - proceed to the nearest suitable airport
ATCneeds to act quickly
If needed, inform pilot about:
RWY in use, length, surface, elevation, ILS- and NAV-frequencies
ATC has to be aware of:
FUEL PROBLEMS
Fuel system is of vital significance for the safe completion of the flight. Without fuel supply the engines will cease operating and without the power produced by the engines the aircraft can not be in the air. Thus, fuel system is of paramount importance.
Fuel problems may be caused by variety of factors:
√unexpected severe headwind ( it reduces the speed and increases fuel consumption; so, the fuel remaining may become critical and not enough for reaching the destination) √ encountering thunderstorm activity zones ( so, circumnavigation of the areas with CB clouds and diversion to an alternate aerodrome may result in fuel shortage)
√ deficiencies in pipe and pump systems ( which can result in fuel leakage) √ fuel gauge/ fuel measurement system failure √ fuel consumption system failure √ fuel contamination with ice, water or metal chips and as a result blocking of fuel filters √ metal fatigue (that can lead to fuel leak) √ low pressure in the system
√ wrong fuel calculation (due to various measuring systems which use different measuring units, e.g. litters, pounds, gallons) √ fueling the aircraft with not appropriate quality of fuel √ poor maintenance service on the ground (when the technical staff forgets to close the fuel filler and pilots fail to check it; foreign objects appear in the fuel due to negligence of ground personnel) √ pilot’s error in feeding the engines with fuel during the flight √ pilot’s mistake (e.g. going around due to missed approach) √ ATC’s mistake (e.g. keeping the aircraft in holding pattern for considerable time, for example due to government flights etc.)
Effects:
Fuel problems may occur due to any contingency and have multiple side effects, possibly impairing the pilots’ ability to fly and land the plane safely. Without fuel one or both engines can be expected to fail, which may in turn result in a forced landing short of the RW or short of the airport itself. There are various fuel problems such as fuel leak, fuel starvation, fuel exhaustion, fuel contamination. In case of fuel leak pilots need to stop fuel supply from the affected tank in order to prevent ignition. Fuel exhaustion can result in engine failure as it can’t operate without fuel. If there is exhaustion only in one tank, cross feed fuel procedure will take place (fuel from one tank will be transferred to another in order to eliminate fuel imbalance).
Fuel exhaustion- is situation when the aircraft runs out of fuel completely and the tanks are empty that leads to engine failure. It is considered to be an emergency situation. In this case forced landing outside the aerodrome(or ditching) is possible. Radio vectoring to the nearest aerodrome is recommended.
Fuel starvation- is situation when there is fuel in the tank but there is a supply problem which either fully or partially prevents the fuel from reaching the engine. Causes may include a blocked fuel filter or more commonly water-contaminated fuel. In this situation pilot is not sure that remaining amount of fuel will be enough for safe completion of flight. He can switch off the fuel pumps on affected tank and supply both engines from another tank.
Fuel imbalance – is the situation when the remaining of fuel in one fuel tank is bigger or smaller than in another. In this case pilots have to assess the situation ( as the the engines may consume different amount of fuel due to age or some other parameters) . So, the crew checks the reason of imbalance. If there is no fuel leak, cross-feed fuel procedure has to take place in order to equalize fuel (the fuel from one tank is transferred to another). But if there is a suspect of fuel leak, it is possible to supply both engines from one tank .
Fuel contamination- is a situation when there is water, metal chips or some other foreign objects in the fuel. It can lead to engine failure, not stable work of the engine, fuel system failure, possibly forced landing out of aerodrome or ditching. There are different forms of contamination that can exist. For example: - bacterial - microbial - foreign object - water - dirt - sand - ice In cases when maximum landing weight of the aircraft is exceeded, fuel dumping or fuel burning are required.
Fuel dumping (or a fuel jettison) is a procedure used by aircraft in certain emergency situations before a return to the airport shortly after take-off, or before landing short of its intended destination to lighten aircraft's weight. Special dumping area should be requested and entered.
More sophisticated aircraft are not equipped with fuel dumping system. Thus, only fuel burning is possible.
Sometimes in-flight refueling may take place.
In-flight refuelling is also called air-refuelling, air-to-air refuelling or tanking, is the process of transferring fuel from one aircraft (the tanker) to another (the receiver) during flight.
This procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer extending its range or loiter time on station, it also gives opportunity to the aircraft to take off with bigger amount of cargo as less fuel is carried while take-off and the plane is topped up when in the air. The first in flight refueling took place in 1949 when American plane B50 performed the first non-stop flight around the world which took 94 hours. It was possible due to air- refueling. At this moment in-flight refueling is used only for military aircraft.
In case the crew faces with fuel exhaustion or fuel leak, pilots immediately have to identify the source of the problem and eliminate it, if it’s impossible - notify ATC, declare an emergency and request priority for landing at the nearest airport. If they can’t make it to the airport, they have to perform landing ahead of the aircraft at any suitable surface (ditching may be possible). If critical fuel status is reported to the ATC, his actions include the following
If needed, inform pilot about:
ATCs don’t have to press the crew with non-urgent questions at this time. MEDICAL EMERGENCY
Onboard Medical Emergency is an acute health problem that can pose great risk to the occupant’s life. If the emergency is serious enough and can not be treated with onboard equipment and medical substances, immediate diversion is required. The most common medical emergencies are
Contributing factors to the development of medical emergency during a flight are - travelling of elderly people (over 70-75) - travelling of people with chronic diseases (heart problems, asthma, epilepsy, blood pressure problems. Time zone changes and altered meal times can result in insulin dependent diabetics becoming hypoglycemic, though diabetic meals can be provided. Passengers on other strict drug regimens, such as epilepsy, may also have problems, especially if they have packed their medication in the hold. ) - travelling of pregnant women ( in the late months of pregnancy) - alcohol abuse - long range flights (DVT can develop due to long time motionless sitting in restricted room ) - unexpected severe turbulence (falling objects from overhead storage bins can lead to injuries) - fear of flying - stress (the stress of getting through a modern airport security checks, stress due to flight delay)
Each aircraft is equipped with first aid kit and medical emergency kit.
One more critical medical emergency is crew incapacitation – inability of a member of the crew to fulfill his/her duties due to physiological factors (sickness, injury, fever or intoxication et Crew incapacitation may occur as a result of:
Incapacitation generally falls into two groups: 1) Subtle or Incomplete Skills or judgment may be lost with little or no outward sign. The person may make illogical actions and decisions, or he/she can manipulate the controls in a hazardous manner. Subtle incapacitation is most commonly caused by hypoxia, hypoglycemia, extreme fatigue, alcohol, drugs or other toxic substances. Neurological problems, such as stroke or brain concussion, may also be a cause.
2) Obvious or Complete The first indication of illness may be loss of consciousness, seizures, severe pain or paralysis. Heart attack or stroke are the most common causes of complete incapacitation. Warning signs include pallor, sweating, nausea, etc.
In case of passenger’s collapse it’s a duty of a flight attendant to assist him with all possible means applying the contest of first medical kit or oxygen mask if necessary. If his condition deteriorates, the cabin attendant reports to the captain and makes announcement if there is any doctor among the passengers. Meanwhile, the pilots have to evaluate the situation and taking into account the company’s policy make decision as for diverting to the alternative in order to save the passenger’s life.
In case of one flight crew member incapacitation a flight attendant should be invited into the cockpit in order to deal with him or her. While another pilot takes over the control of the aircraft, a steward assists a collapsed one. If the pilot fails to regain consciousness, the flight attendant has to move the victim's seat to its full aft position, to recline his seat, to remove his legs from the control pedals, fasten his seat belt with the hands tied up in order to restrain him. Some airlines oblige flight attendants to help the pilot-flying (e.g. reading the check list). So, emergency has to be declared and diversion has to be requested.
To the methods of crew incapacitation avoidance we can attribute:
Medlink A recent innovation that is used by some airlines is Medlink, a direct communication between the flight crew and an organization where doctors are aware of in-flight medical emergencies and can give an instant help how to deal with this or that case. They also supply the crew with the list of the nearest available airports for diversion where qualified assistance can be provided. This service when being contacted relieves the responsibility from onboard doctor.
Date: 2015-12-24; view: 3037
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Day to day flight altitudes for most birds are in the range from the ground to 500 feet. Though great number of bird strikes occur till 50 feet during landing or take-off. The risk decreases doubly till 500 feet. Outside that range, they rarely exceed 1000 feet except on long distance migration flights. These typically occur at a 5000 - 7000 feet altitude, but geese have sometimes been detected at over 20000ft.
Depressurization is a rapid loss of atmospheric pressure due to damage of fuselage construction when the air inside the aircraft becomes as thin as outside and thus not appropriate for breathing.
Engine failure may be caused by:
Fire is one of the most hazardous situations as it spreads rather quickly. According to statistics crew of affected aircraft has only 17 minutes to initiate emergency descent, to perform emergency landing and to evacuate the passengers. Otherwise,without aggressive intervention by the flight crew, the aircraft will burn out to ashes.
The first-aid kit is accessible to the flight attendants and generally includes:
The medical emergency kitis carried on the aircraft sealed and has to be used only by medical professionals as it contains serious drugs. It usually includes:
c.)