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THE HISTORY OF MAN-MADE FIBRES

The first person to visualize the possibility of making an artificial fibre by a process similar to the spinning of the silkworm was Robert Hooke, an English scientist. He included a discussion of the subject in his book "Micrographia", published in 1665, no concrete developments along these lines having occurred, however, until the middle of the 19th century. In 1842 an English silkweaver, Louis Schwabe, exhibited a machine for making artificial filaments. This machine used nozzles with fine holesthrough which the liquid was forced in order to form filaments, this being the principle of spinnerets used today. Schwabe spun his filaments of glass, but was not satisfied with the product and appealed to British scientists to discover a better material from which to manufacture filaments.

A further development preparing the way for man-made fibres was the discovery of nitrocellulose by C.F.Schonbein, a Swiss chemist, in 1846.

In 1855 Audemars of Lausanne took matters a liuttle further.He obtained nitrocellulose from mulberry twigs and dissolved it in a mixture of ether and alcohol with caoutchouc. From the mass that resulted he drew, with a steel needle, threads that solidified in air, and finally wound them on a spool. This process is described in British Patent 283 of 1855. But it was too early then for the process to be developed practically.

The development of man-made fibres as a textile really began with the work of Count Hilaire de Chardonnet (1839-1924) who is often called the "father of the rayon industry", rayon being a man-made fibre based on cellulose. He produced his first fibre by what became to be known as nitrocellulose method in 1884.

The development of rayon represented the first big break fromnature in the production of fibres. Rayon being based on naturally occurring fibrous material (cellulose), the fibre cannot be considered as true man-made fibre.Rayons are made by alteration of natural fibrous substance (cellulose). Further research became centred in producing fibrous material that cannot be found in nature. It was discovered that chemically fibrous material was composed of long-chain molecules. These were eventually synthesized from simple materials (coal,water and air).

A well-known example of synthetic fibres is nylon. It originated in the laboratories of E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.in 1927. It was first introduced to the public in 1938 as bristles in tooth brushes. In 1939 hosiery knitted of nylon yarn was produced in limited scale. In 1940 nylon hosiery was offered to the public on a national scale.

The emergence of synthetic fibres means that it is now possible to produce entirely new fibres with desired combinations of properties.

 

MAN-MADE FIBRES

There are two types of man-made fibres: rayons and synthetic fibres.

Three processes are used for making rayon fibres: the viscose, cuprammonium and soponification processes. They differ in their methods of converting cellulose into the soluble compound that is converted into filaments, the collulosic soluble compound being called spinning solution. The spinning solution being prepared, it is extruded, or spun, through perforated plates, called spinnerets. They are made of metal alloys such as platinum and iridium or platinum and gold. They are parforated with circular, concentrically arranged openings of almost microscopic size (about 0,1 mm in diameter). The size of the openings governs the size of the filament extruded.



The basic material used for the production of rayon is wood pulp, though some cotton is used by some makers. The wood is pulped by the sulphite process and converted into nitrocellulose. This is dissolved in a mixture of alcohol and ether, and the solution is filtered and then aged. When in proper condition, the pulp is forced through spinnerets and converted into threads.

But rayons cannot be considered as true man-made fibres since they are produced from naturally accurring fibrous material (cellulose). A further development in the production of man-made fibres was the emergence of synthetic fibres. They are made by a chemical process called polymerization, in which many units of simple chemical subctances combine to form large molecules whose properties are quite different from those of the basic units. For polimerization to occur, each molecule must contain two potential open ends and monomer units must join end-to-end into linear polymer. However, if the monomere contain more than two sites of reaction (e.g. butadiene, phenol), then netlike (cross-linked) instead of threadlike molecules result.

When certain types of simple compounds are polimerized under special conditions the units form long chains, long-chain polimers being manufactured into fibres.

The first synthetic fibre to be produced commercially was nylon. It can be made in a number of ways from carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. The carbon comes from coal, petroleum or natural gas. Nitrogen and oxygen come from the air and hydrogen from water.

Man-made fibres have made quite remarkable progress in clothing as well as in other industries over the past 25 years, the best established use for man-made fibres in clothing industry being, of course, in linings, suits and overcoats.

But no fibre, natural or man-made, is perfect for all uses. Indeed, the very properties that make a fibre suitable in one type of aplication may reduce its value in another.

Economics

ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

Most people work to earn a living, and produce goods and services. Goods are either produced in the agricultural sector (like milk, vegetable, fruit) or manufactured at plants and factories (like pen, paper, and cars). Services are such things as education, medicine, and commerce. They are provided by people who are called employees. Some people provide goods, some provide services. Some other people provide both goods and services. For example, in the same garage a car can be bought or some service can be obtained in order to maintain this car or to repair it.

The work people do in exchange for payment is called economic activity. The economic system of a town, of a city, of a country, of the world is made up of all economic activities together of these respective communities. Countries differ in their economic activities. The work people undertake either provides them with what they need or provide the money with which they can buy essential commodities. Of course, most people hope to earn enough money to buy commodities and services, which are non-essential, but which provide some particular personal satisfaction, like books, visits to the cinema, trips, etc.

There are two extreme forms of economic arrangements of the economic activity: privately owned economy and State-owned one. The former is often called as ‘free market economy’; the latter is associated with the term ‘command economy’. This type of economy dominated in the former socialist countries. If complete freedom of economic activity is allowed this can create difficulties, because the freedoms of various individuals or individual companies often conflict. Laws have been created to regulate economic activity, and they are concerned with working conditions, worker’s health, wages, pensions, and location of places of work.

Even in the most dedicated free enterprise systems, such as the USA, a need for some degree of State control of the economy has been felt. Some developing countries are interested in control and log-term planning. Such countries as India have a number of plans to guide the economy. They are enacted by the government. Such systems where both private and public sectors coexist are often called as countries with mixed economy.

PRODUCTION

Production is the means whereby resources are organized to produce the goods and services which people require for the satisfaction of their wants. In today’s world an increasing number of people are employed in the service industries such as banking, leisure, finance and administration, rather than in the manufacturing sector. In order to achieve production, inputs of factors of production are to be used. The latter are divided into land, labour and capital.

Land is regarded as a ‘gift of nature’. It includes any valuable mineral deposits. It is also the basic space requirements within which factories may be sited, foodstuffs can be grown, or services can be provided.

Labour constitutes an essential element in all forms of production. It represents all forms human effort, manual and mental, skilled or unskilled which people must deploy.

Capital, in economic terms, may be defined as goods which can be used to produce other goods. Property such as factory buildings, machinery and raw materials are all forms of capital which are used in the process of production.

Production activities must be remunerated or paid. The main forms of payment to employees are wages and salary. Wages are usually paid as a certain sum of money per hour to manual workers, while a salary is a fixed sum, which may be paid monthly to non-manual staff.

As for wages they are usually paid on a basic time rate, often agreed by negotiations between trade unions and management. Pay is expressed as an hourly rate. In addition, there may be supplements, such as overtime payments, danger money or dirty money for work in exceptional circumstances.

A salary is usually expressed as a fixed annual sum, and it is not usual to supplement it, although certain additional benefits may be provided. These are called ‘fringe benefits’ or ‘perks’. They are normally benefits of goods or services such as a company car, membership of a private health scheme, or a company’s own pension fund. In order to attract right people to a job a firm may offer help removal expenses or to provide a low-interest mortgage for house purchase. Recently profit sharing has become popular in recruiting and keeping staff.

The CEOs, chief executive officers, are paid very high salaries. Their annual income, that is, salaries and perks can amount to numerous millions of dollars. We are informed by the Journal of Institutional Investor, an American publication of June 30, 2006, that J. Simon, the top-manager of the Renaissance Technology collected $1.5 billions in 2005, while his colleague from B.P.Capital Management Ò.Pickens made $1.4 billion. It should be emphasized that these huge incomes produced public outcry among the shareholders of the respective companies. A number of Congressmen even introduced a bill against this kind of abuse.

ECONOMICS

Alfred Marshall defined economics as the study of mankind in the everyday business life. There are other definitions too. But Marshall’s definition draws attention to that unique feature of human society: that unlike animals, man provides for his everyday needs by means of a complex pattern of production, distribution and exchange.

We need food, clothes and shelter. If we could get them without working, we probably would not work. But even when we have these essential things, we may want other things because they might make life more enjoyable. Human beings certainly have a wide and very complex range of wants. This everyday business of providing the means of life is called by the general term ‘economy’.

Economics is the study of economies. The science of economics is concerned with all that man produces and not just our basic needs like food, clothes and shelter. The science of economics is based upon the facts of our everyday lives and the general life of our communities. If we want to understand the whole economic system of which we are part we have to study carefully the economic activity of the society

Apart from production, distribution of products among various groups in society and exchange, economics studies the institutions that were created by man to promote economic development.

Economists are those who observe and study economic facts and produce economic theories. They try to describe the facts of the economy in which we live, and to explain how it all works. The economist’s methods should be strictly objective, if it is to be scientific. In order to understand the evolution of economy economists must study economies of man at different stages of his historic development. They studied primitive economies, economies of the ancient and the middle-age societies. But their main interest is being focused on the economy of the advanced industrial countries. It is not in good shape to-day. It is characterized by a low growth rate, unstable monetary system, stagnation of the employees’ income and rather high unemployment.

ECONOMIC THEORIES

As we were reading in lesson 1 Alexander came to London to study economics. Now that he has returned home he is ready to apply his knowledge in his practical work in Russia. Before coming to London he was sure that market economy was a magic arrangement enabling to solve all economic problems which arise in society. He also knew that economics was a science producing accurate understanding and explanation of the workings of the economy. But now he knows that there are a lot of conflicting sociopolitical theories on many issues which are covered by economics. He was taught that the most persistent debate in economics had focused on the degree to which the government was able to improve the economy’s performance. And he was informed that none of the competing theories had performed spectacularly well. Indeed few economists have successfully predicted major economic events. Even annual forecasts of inflation, unemployment and output are regularly in error. He also learnt that there were never-ending arguments about, for example, what had caused such dramatic world event as the Great Depression of the 1930s.

Two hundred years ago, Adam Smith convinced most of the world that economy worked best when it was left alone. During the years of the Great Depression the British economist John Maynard Keynes forced people to rethink that conclusion. He convinced people that active government intervention in the market place was the only way to ensure economic growth and stability. For nearly thirty years this theory dominated the economics profession and public policy. And for thirty years the economy of the industrial countries displayed the longest economic boom in the history of these countries. In the early 1970s, when the economy of all industrial countries was performing badly, most of the economists were sure that Keynes’ theory would be abandoned. Since 1980s, Milton Freedman’s monetarist theory was adopted as a guide-line to run the economies of the industrial countries.

Since M.Thatcher in Great Britain and R.Reagan in the USA this theory began to be implemented in these two countries. Later it was expanded to the rest of the industrial world, although with differing degrees. As unemployment and inflation rate began to decline, supporters of this theory claimed victory. But critics pointed to the problems of poverty, homelessness, budget deficits and inadequate public services. And they emphasized that there were no signs of improvement.

 

PEOPLE IN EMPLOYMENT

If an offer of employment is received and is accepted, the employee and the company for which he or she is to work conclude a contract of employment. The contract specifies the terms and conditions governing employment. It normally includes such items as pay per hour, hours of work and pensions.

If either the employer or the employee is not satisfied the contract of employment can be brought to an end. The period of notice is usually contained in the contract. If it comes to such cases as dishonesty, serious neglect of duties or absence without good reason, an employee will be dismissed without notice. If an employee feels that he or she has been dismissed unfairly, he or she can bring a complaint before an industrial tribunal. The employee will be reinstated to the job or awarded compensation provided the dismissal is found as unfair.

If an employee became redundant as a result of the firm’s closure the redundant employee would become entitled to redundancy pay. And it would depend upon the employee’s age and length of service.

Those who are employed in civil service, that is in government or public administration, they feel more secure in their employment. The reason is that the number of people working in the public sphere is not reduced but steadily increases. Their job in administration is organized in a hierarchy (i.e., on different levels of seniority). They are given more authority and material rewards as they rise from bottom to the top of the hierarchy. Appointments and promotions are made on the basis of experience and qualification. However, there are disadvantages to government work. The material rewards are often less generous than those offered by private companies.

A working life normally ends in retirement. The retirement age varies from county to county. But in all advanced industrial countries it is much higher than in Russia. The difference amounts to 5 – 7 years.

ROBOTS

 

FORERUNNERS OF ROBOTS

The word 'robot' is known to have been first used by the Czech writer K.Capek to denote human-like mechanical creatures. The American writer Isaac Asimov employed this term in 1939 to des­cribe "intelligent" machines, which had been constructed to carry out special tasks without danger for human beings.

The ancestors of robots, the androids, operated centuries ago and were masterpieces of mechanical design. The androids are known to have been built by Pierre Jaquet-Doz, watchmaker of a small town in Switzerland. They were built in 18th century and continued to arouse considerable amazement until the 20th century. We know Jaquet-Doz to have created the lady pianist, the writer and the draughtsman. The grace with which these excellent models performed their activities amazed the society of those days.

In contrast with its forerunners the robot to be employed in industry now has no human form and from the outside looks like a machine. But in these days it draws men under its spell exactly as did the androids of some 250 years ago. Wherever they are exhi­bited, robots seem always to come up with surprises and attract the visitors like magnets.

Some people attributed the success of the robots to one simple fact: the rising costs of human labour favour the robot. In their opinion the industrial robots are highly efficient competitors in factories although they are blind, deaf and dumb assistants with a limited memory and a restricted capacity for making deci­sions.

Robots as every kind of machines are introduced into industry whenever they can perform operations more efficiently and with greater speed than a human being does or they are able to operate in conditions and environments unacceptable for the human.

The introduction of robots in industry is known to entail im­portant social implications. For the free market countries this means a massive replacement of the labour force and increased un­employment. That is why the employees not infrequently regard ro­bots as their competitors, which endanger their position in the work-force market. The situation is totally different in the countries with planned economy where the same process of introduction of in­dustrial robots leads to an increased productivity and improved conditions at the work-place.

 

ELEMENTS OF A ROBOT

Elements of an industrial Robot are known to comprise:

a} An arm completed with gripper or tool mounting facility.

b) A control system to direct the sequence and functions of the arm and to interact with external environment.

c) A group of control elements to provide the drive power for the system and enable the interfacing of other equipment to be ac­complished without needing to change the robot control system.

Arm Construction

The robot arm is the articulated arm system to provide the capability to reach a specific length in the air, to produce an arc about the base and provide a necessary volume.

Two systems of arm exist today: the jointed arm concept and the boom type of system that telescopes the gripper to position. The control system employs a mini-computer as a heart of the system together with a Visual Display Unit (V.D.U.) and key-board for function operation and a hand held portable unit for teaching the robot the position and sequence of moves.

Control systems may be found to be either complete computer controlled, a solid state sequence control system, or a relay system providing control commands to the mechanical arm which in turn moves to pre-set limit switches or mechanical trip dogs.

Tool Centre Point

Two sets of independent rectangular co-ordinate systems are utilized. They comprise a set of positioning axes which control the In and Out or X motion of the arm, a movement about the base giving left and right movement called Y Axis and up and down mo­vement which is the Z Axis.

In addition to positioning the tool or gripper at a particular point in space there is frequently a need to orientate the robot hand in a particular position to the component to be processed. This operation is frequently known as Orientation of the Wrist and on a full 6 axis robot is accomplished by the provision of YAW Mo­tion, which is a rotational movement about the Z Axis, a PITCH mo­vement, which is rotation about the Y Axis and ROLL, which is rota­tion about the X Axis. It is the transformation of this informa­tion that requires a computer to calculate the point in space in 6 axes back to a single set of data storage points.

 

AUTOMOTION

A simple example of automation is the thermostatically controlled heating system in a home. The furnace provides the heat, but the thermostat automatically turns the furnace on and off to keep the temperature of the home constant. One machine starts and stops another. A more elaborate example of automation is the computer complex that controls an automobile production line or prepares a company payroll.

Automation may be defined as any continuous, integrated operation of a production system that uses electronic computers or related equipment to regulate and coordinate the quantity and quality of what is produced. Automatic control of production is achieved in factories by transfer machines, which move a product from place to place for successive operations.

Computers, transfer machines, and related equipment use the principle of ‘feedback’ a concept of control in which the input of ma­chines is regulated by the machines' own output. Although the use of machines dates back to the steam engine of the 18th century and to the as­sembly line of the early 20th century, feedback is a new development truly unique to automa­tion. (Under this definition, a farm cannot be called automated merely because of the huge­ness of its tractor, since the principle of feed­back is lacking.)

Automation covers the output of both physi­cal products and of services. It may be used to administer work in any large organization, as in manufacturing, to produce automobiles, or in the insurance industry, to process data on vast num­bers of policies. Automation may be used even by labor unions, churches, and other organiza­tions that are large enough to need and afford the equipment. It has been reliably estimated that most of the recording activities of the New York Stock Exchange could be handled by one electronic computer and two operators.

Technology of which automation is a com­ponent-is the application of science to practical uses. Man lived hundreds of thousands of years without it, until the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, but only about 10 percent of the people were able to live above minimum sub­sistence, and they usually did this by enslaving the rest. Since the first Industrial Revolution, and during the present-day "automation revolu­tion" the number of people living in poverty in industrialized countries has fallen to about 20 percent.

Nearly everybody knows that technology can solve a multitude of problems. Spectacular eco­nomic growth has been due in great part to ad­vances in technology. Untold millions of people, especially in the underdeveloped parts of the world, fully expect science and technology to solve all of their most pressing problems.

Too few persons recognize that although technology solves countless old problems it also creates many new ones. Not all technological improvement is a net gain. In the first place, some new technology is necessary just to cure the ills of previous technology; for example, if afterburners are perfected for automobile ex­haust, then the air will merely be as clean as it was before the automobile contaminated it. Secondly, some new technology is workable but not yet economical, as in the case of solar energy. Thirdly, nearly all forms of technology have enormous potential for human betterment but, if they are not clearly understood, techno­logical advances can do more harm than good. This is especially true of automation.

Mass-production techniques, however, have produced a mental and physical dependency on machines. The complete effects of this depen­dence are not yet fully recognized. Although living standards in the industrialized world are the highest in history, much of industry has be­come dependent on automated machinery, and as a consequence people generally have become dependent on automation's products, such as washers, dryers, and automobiles. Reliance on these machines often tends to make society mea­sure culture not in terms of intellectual or artistic accomplishment but in terms of such new con­cepts as automobile horse-power, cigarette mild­ness, and deodorant durability.

 

FOOTWARE

Long before history was written shoes were being made. The earliest dawn of civilization in all the diverse corners of the world has almost invariably seen men contriving some sort of foot-covering.

Shoes were unnecessary in warm climates. Primitive man perhaps as early as 20,000 b. c., learned to pre­serve pelts and to bind them about himself or to cut and sew them together for garments. He also wove strips into baskets and molded wet leather around a foot or hard core to make shoes.

In ancient Egyptian wall paintings only kings and priests are shown wearing sandals, made of plaited reeds or, as in the case of Tutankhamen, of finely tooled leather.

People in cooler climates wore shoes much earlier. Egyptian wall paintings at Beni Hassan (2000 b. c.) and at Thebes (1450 b. c.) depict Syrians, and Minoans from Crete, wearing an assortment of elaborate sandals and boots. The meticulous art of the Assyrians has left us detailed designs of their elaborate and sophisticated sandals on the reliefs from Calah (modern Nimrud) and Nine­veh (about 800 b c.).

The general term for different types of foot coverings is footwear. But within this category there exist a number of articles. Shoe, a form of footgear that covers the foot up to the ankle and that is intended as a protection from cold, dampness, or rough terrain. In addition to shoes, other basic types of footgear are sandals, moccasins, boots, slippers, and mules. The sandal has a flat sole of leather or wood fastened to the foot by straps, thongs, or a knob between the toes. The moccasin is distinguished by a sole that extends up around the foot to form some part or all of the upper section of the shoe. This is a primitive form of footgear that is still worn by hunters because of its flexibility and because it gives greater protection against dampness than shoes with a seam between the sole and the uppers. The boot consists of a sole and an upper part that extends above the ankle to protect the leg from cold, wetness, or dan­gerous conditions, such as snakebite or thorny plants. The slipper is a soft shoe, often intended for indoor wear, with uppers generally made of fabric and sometimes lined for winter wear with wool or fur. Mules are slippers that consist of a sole and an upper that covers only the toes.

Until the age or cheap mass production, shoes were generally considered a mark of rank or prestige. Common men walked bare­foot, and their feet became callous, helping them to escape much of the discomfort that would result from not wearing shoes. The nobil­ity, on the other hand, felt obliged to wear shoes as a proof of gentility, that they could not bear roughness or dirt. In ancient China, in order to indicate their incapacity for physical work, upper-class parents bound their daughters' feet to prevent normal growth and to produce a small, twisted "lily foot." As a result, wealthy Chinese women could scarcely walk in their tiny shoes.

As the structure of leather is a vast random network of coil-like molecules linked in fibrous strands, leather is one of the strongest flexible sheet materials known. It resists tearing and puncture, yet it can be stretched. As a porous substance, it can absorb moisture and "breathe," and it has insu­lating qualities. Also, leather is easily worked. It may, for example, be wrapped, rolled, molded, or folded. It may be puckered, crinkled, pierced, sewn, embossed, braided, knotted, glued, nailed. In addition, it is abundantly available in endless variety all over the world.

In view of all these advantages, it is readily seen why leather is widely used for such things as clothing, shelter, upholstery, hangings, har­nesses, saddles, and bookbindings. Often these utilitarian objects are decorated to produce works of art.

Thick leather is wetted and bent or molded into sculptural forms. In addition, leather is woven with other materials on looms, built into collages and reliefs, and tied into macramé-knotted three-dimensional forms.

 

FROM HIDES TO LEATHER

Many of the unique characteristics of leather are due to its three-dimensional fibre weave. The raw material (hides and skins) is studied in its normal state and affected by disease in the living animal. Through the experiences and discoveries of hundreds of years, various methods of making leather were gradually devised. Now the processes of making leather are quite the same throughout the world and their character is similar to that used long ago. The only difference is that the industries making leather have become highly scientific.

Although there are many variations in leather making because of different types of hides made into leather, different agents used for tanning and finishing and different purposes for which leather is to be used, the fundamental processes and operations are the same. The series of processes by means of which the natural hides and skins are converted into leather is broadly covered by the term ‘tanning’. But this denomination is not accurate. Tanning proper is only one of the operations necessary to produce the finished product. The whole process of leather manufacture may be divided into three main stages: 1) preparation for tanning, 2) tanning, and 3) finishing.

Since skins and hides are often transported some distance to the tanneries, they are given a preserving treatment by drying or treatment with salt as soon as they are taken from the animal. This keeps them fresh until they arrive at the tannery. Before tanning, all hide and skins must be thoroughly washed and cleaned. This cleaning is done in large washing machines. Then each hide is run through a fleshing machine, which removes flesh and fat. After fleshing the hides are soaked in a lime solution to loosen the hair so that it can be easily removed by the machine. This process is called unhairing of depilation. When soft, fleshed and clean, the skins and hides are ready to be tanned.

In order to be successful in all these operations and processes, good knowledge of the properties of hides sand skins and processes taking place in them are important. The only way this can be examined directly is through the microscope; hence microscopy is useful and indeed essential in many ways. In this way the influence on the microstructure of putrefaction and other changes is examined and recorded.

Morphology or structure of the skin has been studied for many years under the microscope. This wonderful instrument has revealed many secrets of cell formation and has aided in the explanation of certain known results. The microscope is used to determine the changes in the fibre structure of the hides at different stages, to diagnose the causes of any faults in the finished leather and, if necessary, to identify the source of the material and the type of the process used. Since the properties of leather depend largely on the properties of the fibres and the way in which they interweave, it possible, to some extent, to assess the quality of a leather from microscopical observations. The use of the microscope and the interpretation of observations made with it do not present problems greater than those encountered with other methods of control used in tanneries.

 

SOCIAL WORK

Nature of the Social Work

Social work is a profession for those with a strong desire to help improve people's lives. Social workers help people function the best way they can in their environment, deal with their relationships, and solve personal and family problems. Social workers often see clients who face a life-threatening disease or a social problem. These problems may include inadequate housing, unemployment, serious illness, disability or abuse. Social workers also assist families that have serious domestic conflicts, including those involving child or spousal abuse.

Social workers often provide social services in health-related settings that now are governed by managed-care organizations. To contain costs, these organizations are emphasizing short-term intervention, ambulatory and community-based care, and greater decentralization of services.

Most social workers specialize. Although some conduct research or are involved in planning or policy development, most social workers prefer an area of practice in which they interact with clients.

Child, family and school social workers provide social services and assistance to improve the social and psychological functioning of children and their families and to maximize the family well-being and academic functioning of children. Some social workers assist single parents; arrange adoptions; and help find foster homes for neglected, abandoned or abused children. In schools, they address such problems as teenage, pregnancy, misbehaviour and truancy. They also advise teachers on how to cope with problem students. Some social workers may specialize in services for senior citizens. They run support groups for family caregivers or for the adult children of aging parents. Some advise elderly people or family members about choices in areas such as housing, transportation and long-term care; they also coordinate and monitor services. Through employee assistance programs, they may help workers cope with job-related pressures or with personal problems that affect the quality of their work. Child, family and school social workers typically work in individual and family services agencies, schools, or state or local governments.

 

Job Outlook for Social Workers

Competition for social worker jobs is stronger in cities, where demand for services often is highest and training programs for social workers are prevalent. However, opportunities should be good in rural areas, which often find it difficult to attract and retain qualified staff. By specialty, job prospects may be best for those social workers with a background in gerontology and abuse treatment.

Employment of social workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2012. The rapidly growing elderly population and the aging baby boom generation will create greater demand for health and social services, resulting in particularly rapid job growth among gerontology social workers. Many job openings also will stem from the need to replace social workers who leave the occupation.

As hospitals continue to limit the length of patient stays, the demand for social workers in hospitals will grow more slowly than in other areas. Because hospitals are releasing patients earlier than in the past, social worker employment in home healthcare services is growing. However, the expanding senior population is an even larger factor. Employment opportunities for social workers with backgrounds in gerontology should be good in the growing numbers of assisted-living and senior-living communities. The expanding senior population will also spur demand for social workers in nursing homes, long-term care facilities and hospices.

Employment of substance-abuse social workers will grow rapidly over the 2002-12 projection period. Substance abusers are increasingly being placed into treatment programs instead of being sentenced to prison. As this trend grows, demand will increase for treatment programs and social workers to assist abusers on the road to recovery.

Employment of social workers in private social service agencies will increase. Employment in state and local government agencies may grow in response to increasing needs for public welfare, family services and child protection services.

 

The American and the Englishman.

The Americans like to "move away", to change homes and jobs. They seem to be constantly pulling down old and often quite beautiful houses or throwing away things merely because they are old. They have none of the Englishman's sentimental love for things because they are old. One often hears of the Englishman's "reserve"; how he likes to "keep himself to himself; and how on a long railway journey, with four Englishmen in the carriage, often there won't be a word spoken during the whole journey. That wouldn't be the case in America. The Englishman thinks it is illmannered to ask personal questions. The American doesn't feel that at all. The Englishman prizes privacy, the American prefers sociability. The Englishman's suburban house has its little garden with a hedge or a fence all round it to shut him off from his neighbours. - "The Englishman's hîme is his, castle". The American houses have no hedges or fences separating them from the pavement or from each other. There are none of those little shut-off gardens; generally just a strip of grass with trees on it. The American in his home doesn't object to being seen by everyone - he actually likes it. And inside the house, instead of the separate hall, living-room, dining-room so typical of the English house, the American has the "open plan" house, just one large room where all the family activities (usually noisy) go on with,, perhaps, a "dining recess" or a "kitchen-breakfast-room". The American sociability goes with overwhelming hospitality. You get taken to parties at the houses of your friends; you are invited to theatres, dinners, sports meetings, motor trips; from.the first minute you are on "first name" terms with the people you meet; they all show the keenest interest in your affairs and ask you to let them know if they can help you, and ... by the following week they have forgotten all about you. They like new things - and they get rid of their friends as they do of their cars. No one strikes up acquaintance sooner than the Americans do, and nobody finds it harder to make a real friendship."

 

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Date: 2015-12-24; view: 1214


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