Participation to enhance the quality of decision-making

Participation will not only legitimise the political system, but will also improve the quality of reasoning and decision-making (Mayer, 1997, Mayer and Geurts, 1998; Hisschemöller, 1993). The quality of decision-making can be improved in several ways (Van der Sluijs, 2001; 322). Firstly, participation stimulates the inclusion of all relevant viewpoints, interests, and information, which helps to rule out overlooking something (Kickert et al., 1997; Bohman, 1996). Secondly, participation opens opportunities to make use of local knowledge (Fischer, 2000). The lack of inclusion of such local knowledge has often been an important barrier to the legitimisation and implementation of environmental policies (Renn et al., 1995; Kickert et al., 1997). Finally, participation can help to avoid so-called type-III errors[5]: (Raiffa, 1968; 264; Dunn, 1988; 151). A type-III error occurs when certain information about a problem is excluded and subsequently a (more or less) ‘right’ solution is found for the ‘wrong’ problem. In order to prevent the decision-making process from resulting in a type-III error, a ‘pooled intelligence’ (Moore, 1987) is needed, in which the issue at stake undergoes a process of problem structuring, i.e. the confrontation, evaluation and integration of as much contradictory information on the issue as possible (Hisschemöller and Hoppe, 1996).

Some restraints on participation

In contrast to the claims in favour of participation, some more reserved notions on stakeholder participation have been made.

Incapability of a rational judgement

A mainstream argument in political theories of the early 20^th century (especially Schumpeter’s view on democracy) is that the ‘average’ citizen is not capable of a rational judgement on complex matters that go beyond the experiences of his daily life. Especially in matters which involve norms and values such as politics and many environmental problems, Schumpeter considers the policy preferences of citizens merely manipulable opinions which change with the issues of the day. At best, citizens will only be - to a limited extent - rational, if their own self-interests are at stake (Schumpeter, 1942; referred to in Hisschemöller, 1993).

Defence of self-interests

This connects with another reservation on participation, which flows from the assumption that human beings are led by selfishness and greed. This means that the more people involved who want to defend their interest, the more difficult it will be to improve policies by means of participation. Social scientists have developed different concepts to illustrate the idea that stakeholders are most likely to defend their own short-term interest and to ‘free ride’ on collective goods. This is mainly because of economic rationality: the cost for social behaviour will usually outweigh the benefits. One of these concepts is the NIMBY syndrome (Not In My Back Yard), which refers to fervent local citizen opposition to siting proposals or land-use activities with potential adverse impacts (Rosa, 1988; referred to in Webler and Renn, 1995; 27).

Date: 2015-12-11; view: 805