General Rules for the Use of Articles with Countable Nouns
§ 8. Countable nouns in the singular may be used with the in- definite article in its nominating function and with the definite ar ticle in its individualizing function.
e.g. They couldn't travel without a car there.
While her suit-case was being taken out of the car, she looked
round.
He shut the door behind his wife and handed me a cigar. I didn't enjoy the cigar because it was damp.
In the plural, countable nouns may be used without any article . or with the definite article. The absence of the article has nominat- ing force and the definite article is used in its individualizing function.
e.g. They couldn't travel without cars there.
Note. Note the use of the noun things in the meaning 'circumstances', 'condi- tions', 'events in general', 'the present state of affairs'. It is used without any ar- ticle in this meaning.
e.g. Your refusal will only make things worse.
§ 9. Since the choice of articles is determined by the context or the general situation, we should take into consideration attributes modifying the noun as they constitute part of the context. At- tributes are generally divided into two classes: limiting and de- scriptive.
A limiting attribute indicates such a quality or characteristic of an object (or a group of objects) which makes it distinct from all other objects of the class.
e.g. She lost her temper: 'It's the most unpleasant thing you've
ever told me." She sat listening but the sound of her pounding heart covered
any other sound. Alice smiled to him and took the letter he held out to her.
A descriptive attribute is used to describe an object (or a group of objects) or give additional information about it. This kind of at- tribute does not single out an object (or a group of objects) but only narrows the class to which it belongs.
e.g. He wrote a novel.
He wrote a good novel.
He wrote a good historical novel.
In the above examples a good novel belongs to a narrower class than a novel, and a good historical novel belongs to a still narrow- er class.
We find the same in:
e.g. He smiled at the girl as she came down the stairs wearing a
red raincoat with a hood.
To the left there was a long room with a narrow table strewn with periodicals.
Nouns modified by limiting attributes are used with the def- inite article.
Nouns modified by descriptive attributes may be used with ei- ther the indefinite or the definite articles, as the choice of articles for countable nouns is not affected by this kind of attribute.
But the division of attributes into two classes is not very helpful for practical purposes, since most attributes are not limiting or de- scriptive by nature. Taken by themselves, they are neutral, and it is only in the context that they acquire limiting or descriptive force.
e.g. He was going to build a new house.
Shortly after he moved to the new house, he fell ill. We shall take a road going through the forest as it won't be so hot there.
We shall take the road going through the forest as it is a short cut.
The above examples show that attributes as such cannot gen- erally be regarded as reliable criteria for the choice of articles.
Nevertheless we find a number of attributes which are distinct- ly limiting owing to their form of expression. In order to set them apart, we must survey the use of articles with countable nouns modified by all types of attributes.
§ 10. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by ad- jectives. Attributes expressed by adjectives are usually descrip- tive.
She drove an old car. His office was in a fine, gay, busy little street.
As was stated above, descriptive attributes do not affect the lice of articles. Thus we may find a noun modified by a descrip- attribute used with the definite article.
The woman looked at me shrewdly and there was a glint of hu- mour in the dark eyes. We lay lazily on the steep bank, looking at the tall reeds.
The definite article in this case is accounted for by the situa- tion but not by the attribute.
Note. The adjective pronouns all and whole are to be treated as descriptive at- tributes. The use of articles with nouns modified by these attributes is determined by the situation.
All children like ice-cream.
All the children watched the game with excitement.
He never stayed a whole evening with us.
He spent the whole evening watching the telly.
The adjective pronoun such is also a descriptive attribute, but, unlike all and whole, it is never combined with the definite article. Your father is such a handsome man. I'm not prepared to believe such things about my son.
But adjectives may become limiting attributes when contrast is implied- In this case they are marked by stronger stress.
e.g. Will you pack my things for me? I want the little suit-case
asI'll be away only one night.
She saw a car pull up at the curb with two women in it. The younger woman asked her the way to the railway station.
Adjectives in the superlative degree, however, are always limit- ing attributes.
e.g. She was the smartest girl in the room.
"The most dangerous person of all is my uncle," the young man whispered.
Note 1.Compare the following sentences.
e.g. He's the most experienced doctor I know. He's a most experienced doctor.
In the first sentence we find the superlative degree of experienced which ac- counts for the use of the definite article. In this combination both most and expert encedare stressed. In the second sentence most is an adverb of degree ('êðàéíå`, '÷ðåçâû÷àéíî), so the whole combination is a descriptive attribute and most is unstressed here.
Note 2.The combination a best suit ('âûõîäíîéêîñòþì') and a best seller ('õîäêàÿêíèãà') are set phrases.
Some adjectives, adjective pronouns and adjectivizedtoff-forms almost always serve as limiting attributes. The most important of them are: right ('òîò, êîòîðûéíóæåí'; 'ïðàâèëüíûé') and wrong ('íåòîò'), very, only, main, principal, central, left and right, same, coming, following, present, former ('ïåðâûé') and latter ('ïîñëåäíèé').
e.g. It just seems to be the wrong way to go about it.
My chief is the right man in the right place.
The questions you ask are the very questions I am putting myself.
My mother was the only person whom I told what had hap- pened.
My relatives take a very grave view of the present situation.
Besides, there are other adjectives which commonly, though not always, serve as limiting attributes, e.g. proper ('íàäëåæàùèé', 'ïðàâèëüíûé'), adjacent, alleged, lower, necessary, opposite, previous, so-called, upper, usual, and some others.
Note 1. An only child is a set phrase ('åäèíñòâåííûéðåáåíîêóðîäèòåëåé'). i e.g. She is as spoiled as if she were an only child.
But we say: She was the only child present in the drawing room.
Note 2.Nouns modified by the adjectives next and last are generally used with the definite article.
e.g. We shall probably eat at the next table to him.
My father had not read the last seven pages of the book.
But when these adjectives modify nouns denoting time, actually coming or just past from the point of view of the speaker, there is no article at all.
e.g. He said: "No, you can't see her. She went to London last week"
He said: "I am determined not to spend more than ten pounds on my clothes
next year and so I'll manage by myself." It must be noted that in narration there is a fluctuation in the use of articles with nouns modified by next. We find either the definite article or no article at all. e.g. We had not been sitting long in the drawing-room before Mr March was ar- ranging a timetable for the next day. I sent her a wire and she met me at the station next day. Note 3.Note the difference in the use of articles with nouns modified by the adjective pronoun other. The definite article is used with a singular noun modified by other if there are only two objects of the same description.
e.g, He pulled on the other glove and said he would run along to his office.
If there are more than two objects of the same description, the indefinite arti- cle is used (another). In this case another has three meanings: 'åùåîäèí', 'ëþáîé äðóãîé', and 'íåòàêîé', 'èíîé'.
e.g. Could I have another cup of tea?
"You can do as well as another man," he said. When I came back I found him in another mood.
The definite article is used with a plural noun modified by other if there is a definite number of objects divided into two definite groups.
e.g. Of the three people invited by her for the weekend, one had already arrived.
Her husband wanted to know when the other guests were expected. My mother needed me more than the other members of the family.
In this case the other guests, the other members, etc. means 'the rest'. If some objects are divided into two groups and either one of the groups or both of them are indefinite, there is no article.
e.g. I was thinking of other people in the same position.
Her brothers, as a rule, could not make themselves good friends to other men.
In this case other people, other men, etc. means 'äðóãèå'.
The same rules are applied to other when it is used as a noun pronoun.
e.g. He drove with one hand, and used the other to draw diagrams in the air.
Young Martin was first sent on an errand to the grocer, then on another to the
butcher. Then Katherine remembered about her mail: "The only letter I've opened is my
husband's. Lewis, will you fetch in the others?" When people say they do not care what others think of them, for the most part
they deceive themselves.
Note 4. The other day is a set phrase meaning 'íåäàâíî', 'íàäíÿõ'.
§ ll. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by numerals. Cardinal numerals serve as descriptive attributes.
e.g. He had refused three invitations to golf, his excuse to his friends being that he had no time.
If a noun modified by a cardinal numeral is used with the def- inite article, this is accounted for by the situation or context.
e.g. By candlelight the two men seemed of an age if indeed not of the same family.
Ordinal numerals are usually limiting attributes.
e.g. During the second week in October she met him in Oxford Street.
However, when ordinal numerals are not used to indicate or- der but acquire the meaning 'one more' or 'another', the noun they modify is used with the indefinite article.
e.g. They must have a third race to decide who is the real winner. After a moment's hesitation she added a fourth spoonful of sugar to her tea.
Note 1.The above mentioned rule does not apply to the numeral first. The combi- nation a first night ('ïðåìüåðà') and a first prize are to be regarded as set phrases.
Note 2.Different articles are used in the following patterns with nouns modi- fied by cardinal and ordinal numerals: the third chapter but chapter 3 (three), the fifth page but page 5 (five).
§ 12. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by participles. Attributes expressed by participles.
When they are placed in pre-position, they are usually de- scriptive attributes, like adjectives.
e.g. They lived in a newly painted house. There was a faded photograph and an ash-tray on the desk. The use of the definite article in this case is usually accounted for by the context or the general situation.
e.g. At the corner of the street there shone the lighted windows of a club.
She collected the scattered pages of the letter and put it away into her desk. In post-position we usually find participle phrases but not sin- gle participles. They may be either descriptive (a) or limiting (b) attributes, according to the context or situation.
e.g. a) It was a very small room, overcrowded with furniture.
He took a medicine prescribed by the doctor. b) I adopted the tone used by my uncle Henry.
At length I reached the sixth floor, and knocked at the door numbered thirty-two.
§ 13. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by ingforms. Attributes expressed by ing-forms (see "Verbals", §§ 163-172; 227-232) are placed either in pre- or post-position to the noun they modify.
When they are placed in pre-position, they are usually de- scriptive attributes.
e.g. He looked at me with a mocking smile. He turned and saw a crying boy.
In post-position the ing-form may be either non-prepositional or prepositional. We generally find phrases and not single ing- forms here. Both kinds of these phrases may be descriptive (a) and limiting (b) according to the context or situation.
e.g. a) There was no answer and he sent a telegram saying that he needed some work done urgently.
John had an odd way of looking at things. b) He took the path leading to the lonely cottage.
He could not bear the thought of leaving her in such a state.
§ 14. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by in- finitives. Attributes expressed by infinitives tend to be descrip- tive. e.g. He willingly accepted an invitation to spend the weekend out
of town.
I made an attempt to smile. He suddenly felt an impulse to laugh.
Yet, sometimes, depending on the situation or context, the in- finitive may become a limiting attribute.
e.g. They did not have the money to buy the house. That's not the way to speak to your parents.
At last he forced himself to lie quietly on his back fighting the desire to answer back.
§ 15. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by clauses. Nouns can be modified by two kinds of clauses — attrib- utive (A) and appositive (B).
A. Attributive clauses qualify the noun. They may be intro- duced by the relative pronouns who, whose, which and that, by the relative adverbs where and when or asyndetically.
e.g. I will not describe the pictures that Strickland showed me. His pictures gave me an emotion I could not analyze. He wandered about the place like a man who has nothing else to do.
Attributive clauses fall into two groups:
1) Attributive clauses that can be removed from the sentence without destroying its meaning. They are marked by a pause sep- arating them from the principal clause. In writing they may be separated by a comma. These clauses are never joined to the prin- cipal clause asyndetically. Clauses of this kind are called non-de- fining clauses and they are always descriptive and do not influence the choice of the article. So the use of the article is determined by other factors (the context and other attributes).
e.g. She told me that she had discovered a wonderful young man, who was going to help her in the East End.
She asked me a question, which I did not hear.
On her sofa there was a note-book open, in which she was preparing her lessons for the term.
When he at last got to the office, where he spent so many dull hours, he gave a sigh of relief.
2) Attributive clauses so closely connected with the antecedent that they cannot be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. There is no pause between this kind of clause and the principal clause, and in writing they are never marked off by a comma. Such clauses may be joined to the principal clause ei- ther by connective words or asyndetically. Attributive clauses of this kind are called defining clauses and they may be limiting or descriptive, depending on the situation or context.
When attributive clauses are limiting, the definite article is used with the antecedent.
e.g. He took the cigarette that Robert offered him.
Iremembered what I used to feel about the young men Charles
brought to the house. In the back of her mind was the memory that it was the city
her friend came from.
In Russian the antecedent in this case may be modified by the words òîòñàìûé... êîòîðûé.
When attributive clauses are descriptive, the article with the antecedent is determined by the context or the situation.
e.g. She stared at me with an expression that made me uncom- fortable.
"It's not a story I could tell anyone else, Harry," he said. As a girl my mother had expected a husband who would give her love and position.
In Russian the antecedent in this case may be modified by the words òàêîé, êîòîðûé..., òàêîãîðîäà (òèïà), êîòîðûé... .
Â. Appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the noun. They can modify only certain abstract nouns, such as idea, feeling, hope, thought, impression, sense and the like. Appositive clauses
are usually introduced by the conjunction that ('÷òî') and are similar to object clauses.
e.g. He had the feeling that all his efforts proved to be futile.
He put off the thought that he ought to have tackled the con- versation differently.
Appositive clauses are generally limiting attributes.
e.g. "I am sorry", she said, and I had the impression that she
meant it.
The idea that he can be of use made him happy. I was annoyed by the sense that nothing intellectual could ever trouble him.
Occasionally, however, the noun modified by an appositive clause is used with the indefinite article.
e.g. She had an impression that Charlie was speaking to his cous- in rather than to her. I had a growing feeling that time was running out.
§ 16. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by nouns in the common case. Attributes expressed by nouns in the common case are usually descriptive.
e.g. There was a glass door leading into the passage. A silver tray was brought in with tea cups on it. He sat on a kitchen chair.
When the modified noun is used with the definite article, this is accounted for by the situation, not by the attribute.
e.g. At the study door he stopped for a moment.
Lanny looked at the dining-room window and smiled.
Sometimes, however, nouns in the common case may serve as limiting attributes.
e.g. I reached the house just as the Whitehall lamps were coining
out. Do you believe we can leave the Sawbridge question where it is-
In this case the attribute is usually expressed by a proper name and serves to show that reference is made to a particular object.
§ 17. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by nouns in the genitive case. The use of articles with nouns modified by other nouns in the genitive case is specific. Before we speak of the choice of the article it is necessary to find out to which element of the combination it refers.
As has been said (see "Nouns", § 17), there are two kinds of the genitive case:
1) the specifying genitive which denotes a particular person or thing, as in: my mother's picture, the man's voice, the river's bed. In this case the article refers to the noun in the genitive case and is chosen in accordance with the general rules.
e.g. the boy's
the boys' a boy's books
Robert's Note.When the noun in the genitive case is a proper name, there is naturally 2) the classifying (descriptive) genitive, which refers to a whole class of objects, as in: sheep's eyes, a doctor's degree, a mile's distance. In this case the article refers to the head-noun whereas the noun in the genitive case serves as a descriptive at- tribute. The article for the head-noun is chosen in accordance with the general rules.
e.g. We had not walked a mile's distance when we saw the river. It was only a mile from the cottage to the nearest village but
the mile's walk in the hot sun seemed very long to Jim. Is there a butcher's shop in the street? "I am looking for the butcher's shop," he said, "that used to
be here when I was a child."
As the article here refers to the head-noun, the noun in the genitive case may have the plural form and yet be preceded by the indefinite article, as in: a soldiers' canteen, a girls' school, a three miles' walk, a fifteen minutes' break.
e.g. Would you like to go to a soldiers' canteen and get some
food? The College has a two years' course.
§ 18. The use of articles with countable nouns modified by prepositional phrases.Attributes may be expressed by nouns with various prepositions. Depending on the context or the situation, they may be either descriptive (a) or limiting (b).
e.g. a) But you must know that a marriage with a boy in a jazz
bandwouldn't last a year.
A man under such circumstances is always very helpless, b) He always felt ill at ease among the callers at his sister's
house.
The darkness was almost complete, and the boats in the har- bourwere swaying to the rhythm of the sea's breathing.
Within this type of attributes special consideration should be given to the so-called of-phrase which is very common. Of-phrases may serve as descriptive and limiting attributes.
Descriptive of-phrases are recognized by clear-cut meanings. They denote:
quality — a book of interest, a feeling of relief, a question of im- portance, a portait of a girl, etc.
quantity or measure — a temperature of + 20°, a distance of three miles, a box of two tons, etc.
composition — a group of children, a flock of birds, a party of twelve people, a team of hockey players, etc.
material — a wall of glass, a ring of gold, a scarf of thick wool, etc.
content — a cup of tea, a bottle of milk, a packet of cigarettes, etc.
age — a boy of five, a man of middle age, etc.
size — a sailor of middle height, a building of enormous size, etc.
comparison — a wild cat of a woman (=a woman like a wild cat), an angel of a wife (=a wife like an angel), a devil of a boy (=a boy like a devil), etc.
Here also belong such combinations as: a friend of mine, a book of my own, etc.
Nouns modified by descriptive of-phrases usually take the in- definite article. But the definite article may also be used and then it is accounted for by the context or by the situation.
All other of-phrases are limiting and, consequently, the head- noun is used with the definite article. As limiting of-phrases ex- press a great variety of meanings there is no point in classifyingthem. The most common types of combinations are: the house of my neighbour, the wife of a miner, the foot of the mountain, the collar of a shirt, the smoothness of a new machine, the shot of a gun, the development of science, the roaring of the ocean, the in- vention of the radio, the use of articles, the name of John, the city of New York, the position of a teacher, the colour of amber, the shadow of a tree, the outline of a boat.
In some cases, however, the choice of the article is affected not only by the nature of the of-phrase but also by the following factors:
1) If the head-noun denotes an object which is the only bearer of the property expressed by the of-phrase, the definite article is used: the president of the club, the glow of a lamp, the murderer
of Caesar, the monitor of the group, etc.
2) If there are many objects of the same description, the indef- inite article is used: a member of the club, a student of the group,
apuff of wind, etc.
3) The definite article is used, alongside the indefinite, when  there is a definite number of component parts: the (a) leg of the
table, the (a) wheel of the car, the (an) ear of a dog.
The Use of the Definite Article with Countable Nouns
§ 19. There are certain uses of the definite article which are to be regarded as a matter of tradition:
1) We often find the definite article used by reason of lo- cality, i.e. with reference to objects that surround the speaker (or the people and things described by him). This usually refers to ob- jects either indoors (e.g. the corner, the window, the table, the door, the wall, etc.) or outdoors (e.g. the stars, the street, the trees, the flowers, the houses, the leaves, the birds, the bees, etc.).
e.g. As I came up our street, I saw my mother and my brother waving from the window.
The late sun streamed across the kitchen, and a patch of light danced on the wall. A bee buzzed among the flowers. The trees swayed to and fro under the grey sky. The gulls flew low over the barges.
The noonday heat had even stilled the songs of the birds. It should be noted that this rule applies only to a limited num- ber of nouns.
2) The definite article is used with nouns denoting objects that are usually found in a particular place. It is taken for granted that the object is to be found there. For example, we normally ex- pect to find a subject and a predicate in a sentence. Therefore in analysing the sentence The old man walked slowly we say: "The old man is the subject, walked is the predicate." But we say: "Old is an attribute, slowly is an adverbial modifier of manner," as the secondary parts are not found in every sentence.
When we speak about the cinema or the theatre we say: "I couldn't find my seat and asked the attendant to help me." In a cafe or a restaurant we say: "Let's call the waiter." In a department store we say: "Let's go to the men's clothing department" At home we may hear: "I'll put the kettle on and make you some tea." or "Can I turn the radio off? I want to read the paper."
Note. It should be noted that it is customary in English to use possessive pro- nouns (and not the definite article) when speaking about one's relatives, parts of the body, articles of clothing and other personal belongings. e.g. His brother was wearing a sweater up to his neck and chestnut hair down to his
shoulders.
"Where is he?" Stephen asked, looking at his watch. She put her hand into her bag and took out her handkerchief. However, in certain idiomatic phrases the definite article is the norm.
e.g. He took her by the arm and led her out of the room. He was wounded in the leg. For more examples see "Pronouns", § 6.
The Generic Function of the Definite Article
§ 20. A singular countable noun with a definite article may represent a whole class of objects, thus becoming a composite im- age of that class (but not a typical representative). A noun in this function is called a generic singular.
e.g. The violet is a lovely flower. The cuckoo is a lazy bird.
To the philosopher, language may be an instrument of thought; to the sociologist, a form of behaviour; to the psychologist'a cloudy window through which he glimpses the workings of the mind; to the engineer, a series of physical events; to the linguist, a system of arbitrary signs. The aeroplane has made the world a small place.
Note 1.It is also sometimes possible to use the indefinite article in similar cases. e.g. A violet is a lovely flower.
This use of the indefinite article is not to be identified, however, with the ge- neric function of the definite article. The indefinite article is used here in its nomi- nating function, implying any representative of the class. Hence the use of the in- definite article is not equivalent to that of the definite article when the noun is used as a composite image of a whole class. For that reason the indefinite article is not possible in the following sentences.
e.g. Now the horse has been replaced by the tractor.
"In this lecture I am going to speak about the article in English," said the professor.
In other cases, however, when any typical representative of a class but not a composite image of that class is meant, only the indefinite article may be used.
e.g. A book makes a good present.
A passenger is allowed to take 20 kg of hand luggage free of charge. A word or word-group may be emphasized (i.e. thrown into greater promi- nence). A flower is always a beautiful decoration.
Note 2.Note that a plural noun used in a generic sense has no article irrespec- tive of whether it is parallel to a singular noun with the definite or indefinite article.
e.g. Violets are lovely flowers.
Aeroplanes have made the world a small place. Now horses have been replaced by tractors. Flowers are always a beautiful decoration.
Note 3.When the noun man is used in a generic sense, no article is found with it. e.g. Surely he had suffered everything that man can endure.
The noun woman in a generic sense may be used with the definite article or without any article.
e.g. He had always been interested in that mysterious being — the woman. Woman is man's helpmate.
The generic article is always found with collective nouns de- noting social groups or classes. The article serves to emphasize the idea of collectivity, as in: the proletariat, the peasantry, the bourgeoisie, the aristocracy, the nobility, the gentry, the clergy, the intelligentsia, the public, the police.
With other nouns, the use of the generic singular is restricted
in two ways:
1) Only a semantically limited group of nouns appear to be used generically. We mainly find here names of animals, plants, professions and occupations, the nouns man, woman and child, collective nouns denoting social groups and, last but not least, scientific terms.
Note. In particular, grammar terms may also be used generically.
e.g. The noun may have different functions in the sentence. The article is a structural word specifying the noun.
2) Generic singulars are mainly characteristic of scientific and literary prose where there is a need for generalization. That means that there is a stylistic restriction on the use of generic singulars.
§ 21. The definite article is used with generic plurals but it is found only when the idea of collectivity is definitely emphasized, suggesting 'the whole body of, as in: a) the Russians, the Ger- mans, the Italians, the Americans; b) the peasants, the workers, the Tories, the aristocrats, the Liberals, the catholics. e.g. The Italians have given the world some first-class film pro- ducers. The Tories will not lift a finger to help the workers.
As we see from the above examples, this use of the generic definite article is found with names of nationalities, representa- tives of political parties, classes, social groups and also religious beliefs. Note, however, that there is no article when not the whole body of but separate, individual representatives are meant.
e.g. Italians are often good singers.
Charles knew that his wife wrote articles for the paper and had friends among left-wing people and liberals.
It should be stressed that the use of generic plurals is still more lexically restricted than that of generic singulars as it is found with a more limited number of semantic groups of nouns. Yet it is not restricted stylistically.
Note. The noun people is used with the definite article when the idea of collec tivity is emphasized.
e.g. (All) the people in the village liked the new doctor.
But if the idea of collectivity is not uppermost in the mind of the speaker, there is no article at all.
e.g. She was speaking with absolute certainty: "(All) People are selfish."
§
22. The same generic use of the definite article is found with substantivized adjectives (e.g. the blind, the poor, the rich, the young, the old, etc.). This is also the case with some adjectives de- noting names of nationalities (e.g. the British, the French, the Chi- nese, the Japanese, etc.). On the whole it should be noted that the number of adjectives thus substantivized is very limited (see also "Adjectives", § 6).
e.g. The British are a nation of newspaper readers.
The rich get richer and the poor get poorer. It is necessary to point out here that when not the whole body but separate, individual representatives are meant, a noun should be added.
Cf. The young are often intolerant.
Ah, well! Young men can't help making fools of them- selves," he said amiably. The old are often helpless. The old woman was helpless. Note. Adjectives followed by ones may have generic force and then they are used with the definite article. e.g. "It isn't the pretty ones that become good wives and mothers," said Jack. "The little ones always know a good man from a bad one," said the old woman. The Use of Articles with Countable Nouns in Some Syntactic Patterns § 23. In some syntactic patterns we observe certain pecu- liarities in the use of articles. This refers, in the first place, to the use of articles with nouns in the function of predicative or ap- position.
1) As a rule, nouns used predicatively or in apposition take the indefinite article. It is used here in its nominating function in
accordance with the general rule. It stands to reason that nouns
in the plural have no article, e.g.
Predicative: "I'm a socialist, of course," he said.All my friends were students. Apposition: "I'm sure you know Alfred Hard, a professor atLondon University," she remarked.
My friends, all students then, often discussed thewar.
Nouns used predicatively or in apposition may have descriptive
attributes, e.g.
Predicative: He was an extremely boring fellow.
Apposition: Hart, an uneasy nervous man, made a few sarcastic
remarks.
2) The definite article, in accordance with its individualizing function, serves to show that the speaker or writer is referring to a definite person or object. As a rule, the noun in this case has a limiting attribute, e.g.
Predicative: Philip had been the hero of his childhood. Apposition: Then Jack, the most impudent person there, in- terrupted me.
In addition to this rule it should be mentioned that a noun in apposition is also used with the definite article when the speaker takes it for granted that the hearer knows the person in question, e.g. "What is it, Maty?" "It's Mr Hooker, the newspaper editor,
he wants to see you." As the invited entered the house they were greeted by Elsie,
the maid. Erich Maria Remarque, the German-born anti-war writer,
said that his novels were successful because in them he told "about a generation which had been destroyed by war in spite of the fact that it escaped death."
3) Nouns used predicatively or in apposition may have no arti- cle. This is found in the following cases:
a) when they denote a position (rank, state, post or occupation) which is unique. Note that the noun in this case usually has an of phrase attribute, e.g. Predicative: Mike Slattery was chairman of the Republican
county committee.
Apposition: W. Carl Johnson, Superintendent of the School, re- ceived me in his office. Occasionally the definite article is also used in such cases, e.g. Predicative: I think we all realize that Mr Passant has been the leader of our group. Apposition: So one day I took the opportunity to talk to Mr
Ðóêå, the assistant director of the firm.
b) when they denote a relationship and stress is laid on the social position of the person expressed by the subject (or the head-noun). The noun is usually modified by an of-phrase in this case, e.g. Predicative: Mrs Nelson was wife of the manager of the firm.
He is heir to a rich manufacturer.
Apposition: Margaret, daughter of a history professor, was work- ing as secretary to a Labour member. But usually we find the definite article here, e.g. Predicative: She was the wife of a local tradesman.
One of these young men was the son of an eminent writer.
Apposition: Ann, the daughter of the landlady, cooked break- fast, for the boarders.
Then I was introduced to Charles March, the nephew of our host.
Note. On the whole, with the nouns son and daughter used predicatively or in apposition we find the following three variants:
a. She is the daughter of a doctor {which is the most common variant express- ing mere relationship).
b. She is a daughter of a doctor (which expresses the idea that the doctor has more than one daughter, the variant is not used unless this idea becomes im- portant).
ñ She is daughter of a doctor (which describes the social position of the person in question).
c) when nouns used predicatively serve to denote a certain characteristic of the person indicated by the subject. The noun predicative is usually followed by enough here. (This case is not found with nouns in apposition.)
e.g. He isn't fool enough to believe that sort of thing. She is woman enough to understand it.
d) when predicative nouns are used in clauses of concession with inverted word-order.
e.g. Child though she was, she had suffered much. Boy as he was, he was chosen their leader.
Constructions of this kind are characteristic only of literary style.
Note. There is no article with the predicative noun in the phraseological units to turn traitor, to turn pirate, to turn miser.
§ 24. In English there are a number of verbs which in the Ac- tive Voice require the use of nouns as objective predicatives (a) and in the Passive Voice — as subjective predicatives (b).
e.g. a) They thought him a prig.
They named the child John. b) He was thought a prig. The child was named John.
The number of verbs which can be used in sentences con- taining an objective or a subjective predicative expressed by a noun is limited. The most commonly used of them are: to appoint, to call, to choose, to elect, to fancy, to imagine, to make, to name, to think.
Note. There are a number of other verbs requiring the same construction but they belong to literary style. Some of these verbs may be used both in the passive and active constructions; others occur only in one of them.
The use of articles with nouns which serve as objective (a) and subjective (b) predicatives is similar to that of predicative nouns and nouns in apposition (see "Articles", § 23).
e.g. a) They appointed him a member of the delegation.
We elected him an honorary member of the Committee. He fancied her the most wonderful woman in the world. They chose him chairman of the Society. They appointed him secretary of the new Committee. b) He was appointed a member of the delegation.
He was elected an honorary member of the Committee. She was thought the most impudent little flirt in London. He was chosen chairman of the Society. He was appointed secretary of the new Committee.
Note. In the sentences They took him prisoner and He was taken prisoner, They called him names and He was called names we are dealing with set phrases.
§ 25. The rules given for the use of articles with predicative nouns and nouns in apposition also hold good for nouns intro- duced by as.
e.g. I regarded my uncle as a terrible tyrant. He meant it as a joke but forgot to smile. He went to the conference as the head of the delegation. He acted as interpreter for Mr March. They nominated him as Lord Treasurer of the Council.
Although the use of articles with nouns introduced by as is, on the whole, similar to that with predicative nouns and nouns in ap- position, there is a deviation from the general rule — the indefi- nite article need not always be used after as.
e.g. Rebecca was now engaged as (a) governess.
The man had agreed to serve as (a) witness.
Note. The above rules do not concern nouns introduced by as used for compar- ison. In this case the articles are used in accordance with the general rules for countable nouns.
e.g. The city looked to him as brilliant as a precious stone. You were as white as the sheet in your hands.
§ 26. When nouns denoting titles, military ranks, or social standing are followed by a proper name they are used without any article, as in: Colonel Holmes, Doctor Smith, Professor Jones, Aca- demicianFedorou, Lieutenant-General Rawdon, President Wilson, Prime Minister Forbes, Queen Elisabeth, King George, Lord By- ron, Lady Windermere, Sir William, etc. In such combinations only the proper name is stressed.
Note 1.But we say: The doctor has come. The Prime Minister made an an- nouncement yesterday.
Note 2.The definite article is used in such cases as the late Professor Smith, the celebrated playwright Osborne.
Note 3. A foreign title followed by a proper name is used with the definite arti- cle: the Baron Munchausen, the Emperor Napoleon III, the Tsar Peter the Great.
The article is not used with some nouns denoting close rela- tionship when they are followed by names of persons, as in Aunt Polly, Uncle Timothy, Cousin John.
Other common nouns, when, followed by proper names, are used with the definite article, as in: the boy Dick, the student Smith, the painter Turner, the composer Britten, the widow Dou- glas, the witness Manning, the geologist Foster, the dog Bal thasar, etc. In this case both the common noun and the proper
name are stressed.
Combinations as above are found not only with names of per- sons but also with lifeless things and abstract notions, as in: the planet Mars, the preposition on, the verb to be, the figure 2, etc.
Note, With names of persons in newspaper style there is a tendency to omit the article in this case too. Thus we find: e.g. World middleweight champion Dick Tiger said yesterday that he will retain his
title against American Gene Fullmer.
However, such combinations on the whole are not very com- mon. More often we find a proper name followed by an appositive common noun.
e.g. Britten, the modern English composer... Turner, the celebrated English painter... Manson, a promising young actor...
§ 27. The article is not used with nouns in appositive of-phras- es when the head-noun denotes a title or a post, e.g. They nominated candidates for the post of President and
Vice-President.
He got the degree of Master of Arts.
When I was a young man, the position of schoolmaster car- ried with it a sense of responsibility.
§ 28. The article is not used in the adverbial pattern from - to, in which the same noun is repeated after the prepositions, as in: from tree to tree, from street to street, from town to town, from day to day, etc. Such combinations are to be regarded às free combinations (not set phrases) as the number of nouns thus used is practically unlimited. Care should be taken not to confusesuch free combinations with set phrases, which are somewhat similar to the above mentioned pattern but limited in number:
a) from head to foot, from top to toe, from top to bottom, from beginning to end, from South to North. (Here after the prepositions from ... to we find two different nouns, not the same noun. The number of such units is limited.)
b) hand in hand, arm in arm, shoulder to shoulder, face to face, day by day. (The same noun connected by different prepositions is repeated here. The number of such units is also limited.) § 29. There is no article with nouns in direct address. e.g. "How is my wife, doctor?" § 30. After the exclamatory what we find the indefinite article with singular nouns. e.g. "What a car!" she exclaimed. I thought what an unhappy man he must be! What a narrow-minded, suspicious woman Maria was! With plural nouns there is no article, in accordance with the general rules.
e.g. What marvellous books you've got!
It is noteworthy that no article is used after the interrogative what modifying a noun.
e.g. What question did you want to ask me?
§ 31. The definite article is found within an of-phrase preceded by one, some, any, each, many, most, none, all, several, the first, the last, the rest, the majority.
e.g. "One of the letters is from Tom," she said.
Most of the lecturers had other jobs in the town.
Several of the boys knew that my father had "failed in busi-
Compare the above given combinations with: one letter, most Lecturers, several boys, etc.
§ 32. There is a fluctuation in the use of articles in the follow- ing type of combinations: a sort of (a) man, the sort of (a) man, what sort of (a) man, this sort of (a) man, that sort of (a) man, some sort of (a) man; a (the, some, what, this, that) kind of (a) man, a (the, some, what, this, that) type of (a) man.
e.g. He showed us a new type of bulb.
"What sort of a day have you had?" I asked him
Teens in the Workforce
Quarter 2, 2001 by Alison Morantz
Note: The names of the teens cited in this article have been changed to protect their privacy.
Emily Payet, an outgoing high school sophomore, spends about fifteen hours each weekend serving customers from behind the counter of a large deli and bakery in East Boston. Many of her friends from school work there, too. On some Saturdays, she comes in as early as 5:30 a.m. and spends several hours helping to prepare the food. After the store opens, she stands behind the counter selling deli items and baked goods. Hired at $6 an hour, she asked her boss for a raise nine months later and was delighted when he offered her $7.50.
Emily considers herself "lucky to have the job," but says it also has some major downsides. "For one thing, we don't get any breaks, not even fifteen minutes. Just standing on my feet for eight or sometimes ten hours, there are times when my feet kill. . . . Also, my back hurts now because I do a man's job sometimes, like lifting four gallons of milk in crates and heavy boxes." Nevertheless, she feels she is learning important job skills. "I connect with the public a lot, and sometimes they give you an attitude. As much as you want to give them an attitude back, you can't. Here is what my boss says: 'The customer is always right.'"
Work is a pervasive facet of teenage life. Roughly one-third of 16- and 17-year-olds are employed in any given week during the school year, with about 80 percent holding a job at some point during their junior or senior years. For many teens and their parents, the benefits of working are self-evident. Part-time jobs are one of the surest ways to teach kids important job skills; learning early how to balance school and work may help kids balance competing commitments later on. The time teens spend on the job is generally time they don't spend on criminal activity or dangerous forms of recreation. And, as Emily Payet points out, holding a job gives teens spending money over which they have complete control. "It just gets tiring after a while to ask your parents for money all the time. . . . It's better having your own money. That way you can do what you want with it."
Some teens even discover lifelong careers. "My board of directors is composed of 41 industry leaders," notes Peter Christie, Executive Vice President and C.E.O. of the Massachusetts Restaurant Association. "Many started out in entry-level positions in the fast-food industry. . . . I myself started as a dishwasher in a diner, and then went back twenty years later and bought that diner." Some unusual jobs may even give students entrée into careers they would not have considered otherwise. Irene Brand was thinking about a career in journalism before she landed a summer job working with animals at the New England Aquarium. "I never thought about doing this kind of work," said the 16-year-old from Dorchester, Massachusetts. "I might want to continue doing it after I finish school."
On the other hand, working in junior high and high school can carry special risks. Youth and inexperience tend to make teenagers especially vulnerable to workplace injuries and other safety hazards. Coworkers may "educate" teens about alcohol, drugs, and other high-risk activities; extra spending money may encourage them further. And students worn out from too many hours on the job may have trouble keeping up with homework and focusing on classroom instruction. This raises concern that, despite the benefits, teens could even wind up worse off in the long run, with lower-paying jobs and less opportunity than if they had concentrated time and attention on school, athletics, or other after-school activities.
Quarter 2, 2001