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Fundamental issues of general linguistics: definition of language, word, paradigm, relationship between language and speech.

 

definition of language 1. a body of words and the systems for their use common to a people who are of the same community or nation, the same geographical area, or the same cultural tradition: the two languages of Belgium; a Bantu language; the French language; the Yiddish language. 2. communication by voice in the distinctively human manner, using arbitrary sounds in conventional ways with conventional meanings; speech. 3. the system of linguistic signs or symbols considered in the abstract (opposed to speech ). 4. any set or system of such symbols as used in a more or less uniform fashion by a number of people, who are thus enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another. 5. any system of formalized symbols, signs, sounds, gestures, or the like used or conceived as a means of communicating thought, emotion, etc.: the language of mathematics; sign languageIn linguistics, a word is the smallest element that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content. A word may consist of a single morpheme (for example: oh!, rock, red, quick, run, expect), or several (rocks, redness, quickly, running, unexpected), whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word (-s, -ness, -ly, -ing, un-, -ed). Words can be put together to build larger elements of language, such as phrases (a red rock), clauses (I threw a rock), and sentences (He threw a rock too but he missed).

 

The term word may refer to a spoken word or to a written word, or sometimes to the abstract concept behind either. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes, and written words of symbols called graphemes, such as the letters of the English alphabet.A linguistic paradigm is the complete set of related word forms associated with a given lexeme. The familiar examples of paradigms are the conjugations (ńďđ˙ćĺíčĺ)of verbs.. Accordingly, the word forms of a lexeme may be arranged conveniently into tables, by classifying them according to shared inflectional categories such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender or case. For example, the personal pronouns in English can be organized into tables, using the categories of person (first, second, third); number (singular vs. plural); gender (masculine, feminine, neuter); and case (nominative, oblique, genitive).Language and speech.The distinction between language and speech was made by Ferdinand de Saussure, the Swiss scholar usually credited with establishing principles of modern linguistics. Language is a collective body of knowledge, it is a set of basic elements, but these elements can form a great variety of combinations. In fact the number of these combinations is endless. Speech is closely connected with language, as it is the result of using the language, the result of a definite act of speaking. Speech is individual, personal while language is common for all individuals. To illustrate the difference between language and speech let us compare a definite game of chess and a set of rules how to play chess.Language is opposed to speech and accordingly language units are opposed to speech units. The language unit phoneme is opposed to the speech unit – sound: phoneme /s/ can sound differently in speech - /s/ and /z/). The sentence is opposed to the utterance; the text is opposed to the discourse.



58. Main characteristic features of American English.American English (AmE, AE, AmEng, USEng, en-US), also known as United States English or U.S. English, is a set of dialects of the English language used mostly in the United States. Approximately two thirds of native speakersof English live in the United States. American English cannot be called a dialect although it is a regional variety, because it has a literary normalized form called Standard American, whereas by definition given above a dialect has no literary form. Neither is it a separate language, as some American authors, like H. L. Mencken, claimed, because it has neither grammar nor vocabulary of its own. From the lexical point of view one shall have to deal only with a heterogeneous set of Americanisms. An Americanism may be defined as a word or a set expression peculiar to the English language as spoken in the USA. E.g. cookie 'a biscuit'; with boards or shingles laid on; ' frame-up ' a staged or “preconcerted law” – “case”; “guess” – “think”; “store” -'shop'.

59.Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations.

A linguistic unit enters into syntagmatic relations with other units of the same level it occurs with. SR exist at every language level. They can be of 3 different types: coordinate, subordinate and predicative.

a)Coordinate SR exist between the homogeneous linguistic units that ax that is, they are the relations of independence: you and me; They were tired but happy.

Subordinated SR are the relations of dependence when one linguistic unit depends on the othex- teach + er - morphological level; a smart student - word-group level; predicative and subordinate clauses - sentence level. Predicative SR are the relations of interdependence: primary and secondary

Paradigmatic relations

A linguistic unit can enter into relations of two different kinds. It enters into paradigmatic relations with all the units –that can also occur in the same environment. Are relations based on the principles of similarity. They exist between the units that can substitute one another. According to different principles of similarity PR can be of three types: semantic, formal and functional.

Semantic PR are based on the similarity of meaning: a book to read = a book for reading.

Formal PR are based on the similarity of forms. Such relations exist between the members of a paradigm: man – men; play – played’- will play ~ is playing.

Functional PR are based on the similarity of function. They are established between the elements that can occur in the same position

60. Functional styles of the English language. 1) Scientific Style. The main function of the scientific style: rational cognition and linguistic presentation of the dynamics of thinking, used in different fields of science, characterized by different manners of scientific presentation. f.ex. "thesis, abstract of thesis, monograph, article, report". 2) Publicist Style includes essay, slogans, article, brief news, or news columns, report, oratory /speeches, parliamentary debates. The major functions: social influence and public opinion manipulation; informative function, propaganda, popularization, education, analysis and criticism. Stylistic features: interchange of standard and expressiveness, explicit evaluation, affective, impressive character, stylistic effects of "novelty", advertising, mass, group social orientation, factography. 3) Official Style is the establishment of norms and rules in the sphere of public relations (e.g. the relations of individuals, group – individual relations, the relations of social groups and institutions, etc.). Official Style includes: laws, codes, instructions, applications, references, protocols, agreements, pacts, declarations and others.4) Colloquial (Conversational) Style includes talks, conversations, interviews, communication between family members, friends, quarrels, abuse, scandal, squabble, insult. The main function is communication, realization of practical activity of a person. It is used in everyday life. Features: informality, spontaneous character of speech, attraction of paralinguistic means of communication (gestures, expression of the face, movements). Oral and written (epistolary) varieties. Two forms of speech: dialogue and monologue.

 

 


Date: 2015-12-11; view: 2075


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