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Figure 3-7. AceReader Pro presenting target words
With this particular experiment, nobody experiences the attentional blink every time. For instance, if you're already good at speed-reading or it's easy to guess the sentences in the text document as they come up, it probably won't work. We're using this software to simulate the controlled RSVP experiment, which uses random letters. Doing it this way isn't as reliable. That said, it worked for me about half the time, and I can only describe the attentional blink itself as a peculiar experience. At about five words a second (300 words a minute), I wasn't overwhelmed by having to read every word and decide whether it was one of my targetsbut I was certainly on the cusp of being overwhelmed. I had to sustain a high level of concentration on the screen. The first word jumped out at me, as I expected it would. OK, I'd recognized that one; now I could look out for the next. But the next word I remember reading properly was four places after. I'd somehow missed my second target. What had occurred in between was my attentional blink. Thinking back, I could remember the sensation of having seen my second word on the screen, but somehow, although I'd seen it, I hadn't twigged that it was actually my target. My memory was distinctly less visual and sure than for the first word, and all I could really remember, for the duration of the blink, was the feeling of doing two things at once: processing the first target and trying to keep up with the fresh words on-screen. If I hadn't been able to stop and figure out why I hadn't noticed my second target, knowing it had to have flashed up, I would've missed it completely. How It Works Clearly the attentional blink does exist. The half-second recovery time after noticing a target has been shown many times in experiments. Like attention in general, however, precisely how it arises in the brain is still subject to research. One strong theory assumes there's a limited amount of attention to go round, which is rapidly transferred from one letter to the next in the rapid serial visual presentation task. Due to the amount of processing each letter needsto see if it's white or if it's the Xand the speed of change of letters, attention is forced to operate at maximum capacity. When the white letter, the first target, is spotted, additional attentional resources are suddenly needed to lift it to a level of conscious awareness. These extra resources have to come from somewhere, and the process of raising one's awareness takes time; for that period of time, new incoming letters aren't given as much attention as they really need. That's not to say new letters aren't given any attention at all, and that's where the analogy with eye blinking breaks down. Eye blinks shut off vision almost completely, but attentional blinks just reduce the probability of spotting a target during the blink. The success rate for spotting the second target, the X, dips to its minimum of 50% if the second target occurs a quarter of a second (250 ms) after the first target and then gradually recovers as the half-second plays out. In this view, it's not so much that the second target doesn't get seen at all, it's that it gets processed but there just isn't enough attentional resource to go around and so it isn't brought up to conscious awareness. Additional, random letters keep coming in and claim the processing resource for themselves, and so you never notice that second target. Two pieces of evidence back this up. First, the processing demand contributed by the random letters is essential for the attentional blink to show up. If the letters aren't there, or instead something that is easily ignored is used (like blocks of random colors, perhaps), they don't act as a processing drain. The second target is seen as easily as the first target in that case. Second, although the second target may never reach conscious awareness, it can still influence the subconscious mind. There's an effect called priming, in which seeing a word once will make it, or a related word, easier to notice the second time [Hack #81] . So, for example, in the RSVP task, if shown the word "doctor," the subsequent word is faster and easier to spot if it's the word "doctor" or "nurse."1 It turns out that the second target, even if it isn't consciously noticed, can prime the next item. This means that the items shown during the attentional blink reach the level of processing required for meaning, at least, and aren't just discarded. The limited-resources-for-attention theory appears to be a good one: there's just not enough attention to lift two items to awareness in quick succession.
Think of the attentional blink next time you're looking along a bookshelf for particular titles or down a list of names for people you know. I've had experiences looking down lists when I miss one of the names I'm after time after time, only to look againslower the second timeand see it was shortly after another name that had jumped out at me each time for some other reason. End Note 1. An excellent review paper on the subject, especially the priming effect, is: Shapiro, K. L., Arnell, K. M., & Raymond, J. E. (1997). The attentional blink. Trends in Cognitive Science, 1(8), 291-296. See Also · Two good introductions to the general topic of attention are: Styles, E. A. (1997). The Psychology of Attention. Hove: U.K.: Psychology Press. And: Pashler, H. (1998). The Psychology of Attention. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. |
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Hack 40. Blind to Change
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Hack 41. Make Things Invisible Simply by Concentrating (on Something Else)
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Hack 42. The Brain Punishes Features that Cry Wolf
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Hack 43. Improve Visual Attention Through Video Games
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Chapter 4. Hearing and Language Section 4.1. Hacks 44-52 Hack 44. Detect Timing with Your Ears Hack 45. Detect Sound Direction Hack 46. Discover Pitch Hack 47. Keep Your Balance Hack 48. Detect Sounds on the Margins of Certainty Hack 49. Speech Is Broadband Input to Your Head Hack 50. Give Big-Sounding Words to Big Concepts Hack 51. Stop Memory-Buffer Overrun While Reading Hack 52. Robust Processing Using Parallelism |
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4.1. Hacks 44-52
Your ears are not simply "eyes for sound." Sound contains quite different information about the world than does light. Light tends to be ongoing, whereas sound occurs when things change: when they vibrate, collide, move, break, explode! Audition is the sense of events rather than scenes. The auditory system thus processes auditory information quite differently from how the visual system processes visual information: whereas the dominant role of sight is telling where things are, the dominant role of hearing is telling when things happen [Hack #44] .
Hearing is the first sense we develop in the womb. The regions of the brain that deal with hearing are the first to finish the developmental process called myelination, in which the connecting "wires" of neurons are finished off with fatty sheaths that insulate the neurons, speeding up their electrical signals. In contrast, the visual system doesn't complete this last step of myelination until a few months after birth.
Hearing is the last sense to go as we lose consciousness (when you're dropping off to sleep, your other senses drop away and sounds seem to swell up) and the first to return when we make it back to consciousness.
We're visual creatures, but we constantly use sound to keep a 360° check on the world around us. It's a sense that supplements our visual experiencea movie without a music score is strangely dull, but we hardly notice the sound track normally. We'll look at how we hear some features of that sound track, stereo sound [Hack #45], and pitch [Hack #46] .
And of course, audition is the sense of language. Hacks in this chapter show how we don't just hear a physical sound but can hear the meanings they convey [Hack #49], even on the threshold of perception [Hack #48] . Just as with vision, what we experience isn't quite what is physically there. Instead, we experience a useful aural construction put together by our brains.
We'll finish up by investigating three aspects of understanding language: of the hidden sound symbolism in words [Hack #50], of how we break sentences into phrases, [Hack #51], and of how you know excalty waht tehse wrdos maen [Hack #52] .
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Hack 44. Detect Timing with Your Ears
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Date: 2015-12-11; view: 742
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