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Verbs and conjunctions used for reporting
a In statements, say and tell are the most common reporting verbs.
He said it was true. Not: He told it was true.
He said it was true. Not: He said me it was true.
He said to me (that) it was true. Not: He told tome (that) it wan true.
These verbs can be followed by that, but it is not necessary.
b In questions, ask and want to know are common reporting verbs.
c In Yes/ No questions the verb is joined to the reported words with if or
whether.
| She asked/wanted to know | if whether | it was true (or not). |
d In Wh- questions, we do not need if or whether.
‘What do you think?' → He asked me what I thought.
Word order in reported questions
The word order in reported questions is the same as in normal statements.
‘Can you come early?’→ She asked if I could come early.
‘Did you see anything suspicious?’ → The police officer wanted to
know if we had seen anything suspicious.
CONDITIONALS
Conditionals are clauses introduced with if. There are three types of conditional clauses: Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3. There is also another common type, Type 0.
| If-clause | Main clause | |
| Type 0 | if + present simple | present simple |
| If the temperature fallsbelow 0° | water turnsinto ice. | |
| Type 1 | if + present simple | will + infinitive |
| If he doesn’t pay the fine, | he will go to prison. | |
| Type 2 | if + past simple | would + infinitive |
| If he werehere, | he would knowwhat to do. | |
| Type 3 | if + past perfect | would + have + infinitive |
| If she had studied harder, | she would have passed the exam. |
Type 0 Conditionals
They are used to express something which is always true. We can use when (=whenever) instead of if.
If/When the sun shines, snow melts.
Type 1 Conditionals
They are used to express real or very probable situations in the present or future.
If he doesn’t study hard, he won’t pass his exam.
Type 2 Conditionals
They are used to express imaginary situations which are contrary to facts in the present and, therefore, are unlikely to happen in the present or future.
If I got up earlier, I would not be late for classes.
Type 3 conditionals
They are used to express imaginary situations which are contrary to the facts in the past. They are also used to express regrets and criticism.
If John hadn’t got up late, he wouldn’t have missed the train.
INFINITIVE – GERUND – PARTICIPLES
The Infinitive
| Active | Passive | |
| Present | (to) lose | (to) be lost |
| Present Continuous | (to) be losing | --- |
| Perfect | (to) have lost | (to) have been lost |
| Perfect Continuous | (to) have been losing | --- |
The to-infinitive is used:
1 To express purpose:
Sam went to the bank to get some money.
2 After certain verbs: afford, agree, appear, decide, expect, hope, offer, plan, promise, refuse, want, etc.
He promised to help us.
3 After adjectives: happy, glad, clever, mean, stupid, etc:
I’m very glad to seeyou.
4 After too / enough
She is too young to stay out so late.
The bare infinitive is used:
1 After the modal verbs (must, may, should, can, etc.)
You must study hard.
2 After the verbs let, make, see, hear, and feel.
They made him pay for the damage.
The Gerund
| Active | Passive | |
| Simple | losing | being lost |
| Perfect | having lost | having been lost |
The Gerund is used:
1 As a noun:
Swimming keeps you fit..
2 After certain verbs: admit, avoid, consider, delay, deny, discuss, enjoy,
imagine, postpone, suggest, etc
They considered movingto Spain.
3 After dislike, enjoy, hate, like, love, prefer:
She likes painting.
BUT: I would like to go to the cinema tomorrow.
4 After expressions such as: it’s no use, what’s the use, can’t help
there’s no point (in), can’t stand
What’s the use of waiting for an answer?
5 After prepositions:
He left without saying goodbye.
He was found guilty of lying in court.
The Participles
The Participles are:
Present Participles (staying, leaving, etc.),
Perfect Participles (having left,etc.).
Past Participles (stayed, left, etc.)
1 Present and past participles can be used as adjectives.
It was an embarrassingsituation. (What kind of situation? Embarrassing.)
He was embarrassed.(How did he feel? Embarrassed.)
2 Participles can also be used:
a to express reason.
Feeling shy, Laura didn't talk to Ben.
Having seen the filmbefore, I decided to stay at home.(= Because I had seen the film before, I decided to stay at home.)
b to express time.
Aftertaking/having takenhis Master's degree,he applied for a job.
Having taken his Master's degree,he applied for a job.
We met John while shopping.
c instead of the past simple in narratives when we describe actions
happening immediately one after the other.
Hearing the news, she fainted.
d to avoid repeating the past continuous in the same sentence.
He was walking down the street whistlinga tune. (= He was walking down the street and he was whistlinga tune.)
SUFFIXES
Date: 2015-12-11; view: 1118
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