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Writing and SpeakingParaphrasing in plain language Speaking Phrases for discussions Writing 1 Summa rising requirements 2 Providing advice and making suggestions Speaking 1 Describing the legal situation: usury 2 Explaining ideas to a client Writing A polite refusal Speaking Requesting and presenting information Writing 1 A covering letter 2 A thank-you note Speaking 1 Discussing insolvency work 2 A job interview 3 Discussion on restructuring Writing 1 Using passive constructions 2 A proposal 3 An informative Speaking Giving opinions: a competition law case Answer key page 284 Glossary page 307 Indexpage 315 Language 0 Key terms: Intellectual property OText analysis: Discourse markers as sentence openers 0 Key terms: Negotiable instruments 0 Language use: Making suggestions and recommendations 0 Key terms: Comparing and contrasting concepts 0 Language use 1: Anticipating events and planning contingencies 0 Text analysis: Formality / Adverb-verb collocations 0 Language use 2: Requesting information 0 Key terms: Types of liens 0 Text analysis: A covering letter 0 Key terms: Anti-competitive activity 0 Language use: Warning a client of risks 0 Text analysis: A proposal ( Thepracticeof law PARTI: THELEGALSYSTEM 1. Read the excerpts below from the course catalogue of a British university's summer-school programme in law and answer these questions. 1 Who is each course intended for? 2 Which course deals with common law? 3 Which course studies the history of European law? LAW 121: B More individuals in the World solVe their legal problems in the framework of WhaJ'is called the civil-law system than in the Anglo-Saxon case-law system, This course will introduce students'to the legal systems of Western Europe that have most influenced the civil-law legal systems in the world. It aims to give students an insight into a system based on the superiority of written law. The course will cover the application and development of Roman law in Europe to the making of national codes all over the world. LAW 221: Introduction to civil law This course provides a English law and the common';faWsyst~i;I;1, The course will look at the sources of laW and the law-making process,. as weir ascft the justice system in England. Students will be introduced to selected areas of English law, such as criminal law, contract law and the law of torts. The relationship between the English common law and EC law will also be covered. The course is designed for those international students who will be studying at English universities later in the academic year. Other students with an interest in the subject are also welcome to attend, as the contact points between English law and civil law are nUmerous. The seminars and all course materials are in English. The coUrse is intended to prepare students Whoa.re going to study in a European for the different approaches to lIkely to face in their year 2 Match these bodies of law (1-3) with their definitions (a-c). 1 civil lawa area of the law which deals with crimes and their punishments, including fines and/or imprisonment (also penal law) b 1) legal system developed from Roman codified law, establIshed by a state for its regulation; 2) area of the law concerned with non-criminal matters, rights and remedies c legal system which is the foundation of the legal systems of most of the English-speaking countries of the world, based on customs, usage and court decisions (also case law, judge-made law) Common law Criminal law ) 3 Complete the text below contrasting civil law, common law and criminal law using the words in the box. based on bound by codified custom disputes non-criminal precedents provisions rulings legislation The term 'civil law' contrasts with both 'common law' and 'criminal law'. In the first sense of the term, civillaw refers to a body of law 1) """""".""" written legal codes derived from fundamental normative principles. Legal 2) ................ are settled by reference to this code, which has been arrived at through 3) . . Judges are 4) the written law and its 5) ""."'"'''' In contrast, common law was originally developed through 6) , at a time before laws were written down. Common law is based on 7) ......... created by judicial decisions, which means that past 8) . are taken into consideration when cases are decided. It should be noted that today common law is also 9) , i.e. in written form. In the second sense of the term, civil law is distinguished from criminal law, and refers to the body of law dealing with 10) matters, such as breach of contract. 4 Which body of law, civil law or common law, is the basis of the legal system of your jurisdiction? The word Law refers generally to legal documents which set forth rules governing a particular kind of activity. 5 Read the following short texts, which each contain a word used to talk about types of laws. In which kind of document do you think each appeared? Match each text (1-5) with it$ source (a-e). 1 3 5 MrSpeaker, Iam pleased to have the opportunity to present the Dog Control Amendment Billto the House. It is a further milestone in meeting the changing expectations we have about what is responsible dog ownership. a court ruling b local government document c newspaper d parliamentary speech e brochure for employees 1 (UK) bye-law Unit 1 The practice of law ~ 6 Find words in Exercise 5 which match these definitions. Consult the glossary if necessary. 1 rules issued by a government agency to carry out the intent of the law; authorised by a statute, and generally providing more detail on a subject than the statute 2 law enacted by a town, city or county government 3 draft document before it is made into law 4 legal device used by the European Union to establish policies at the European level to be incorporated into the laws of the Member States S formal written law enacted by a legislative body 7 Complete the sentences below using the words in the box. bill directive ordinance regulations statutes 1 The Town Council will conduct a public hearing regarding a proposed concerning property tax. 2 According to the concerning working time, overtime work is work which is officially ordered in excess of 40 hours in a working week or in excess of eight hours a day. 3 Early this year, the government introduced a new on electronic commerce to Parliament. 4 A number of changes have been made to the federal governing the seizing of computers and the gathering of electronic evidence. S The EuropeanUnion '"'''''''''' on Data Protection established legal principles aimed at protecting personal data privacy and the free flow of data. 1: . nUlg There are several ways to refer to vVhata sentences: says. Look at the following The law stipulates thatcorporations must have three governing bodies. The law providesthat a witness must be present. The patent law specifies that These verbs can also be used to express what a law says: Thelaw states/ sets forth/ determines/ lays down/ prescribesthat ... 8 Choose a law in your jurisdiction that you are familiar with and explain what it says using the verbs listed in the box above. Courts can be distinguished with regard to the type of cases they hear. 9 Match each of the following types of court (1-9) with the explanation of what happens there (a-i). 1 appellate court(or court of appeals, appeals court) Crown court 3 high court(or supreme court) a This is where a person under the age of 18 would be tried. b This is the court of primary jurisdiction, where a case is heard for the first time. c This is where small crimes are tried in the UK. d This is where law students argue hypothetical cases. Juvenile court 5 lower court(or court of first instance) 6 magistrates' court Moot court Small-claims court Tribunal n92: l e This is where a case is reviewed which has already been heard in a lower court. f This is where cases involving a limited amoun! of money are handled. g This is where serious criminal cases are heard by a judge and a jury in the UK. h This is where a group of specially chosen people examine legal problems of a particular type, such as employment disputes. i This is usually the highest court in a jurisdiction, the court of last resort. 10Work in small groups. 1 Describe the different types of court in your jurisdiction and the areas of law they deal with. 2 Select one type of court in your jurisdiction and explain what kinds of cases it deals with. *In 11Complete this diagram with the words and definitions below (a-f). 2)................. public official who has the authority to hear and decide cases person who initiates a civil lawsuit Claimant1 person who has specialised knowledge of a particular subject who is called to testify in court employee who takes. records, files papers and issues processes a expert witness b appellant2 c person who is sued in a civil lawsuit d officer of the court whose duties include keeping order and assisting the judge and jurors e person who pleads cases in court f hypothetical person who uses good judgment or common sense in handling practical matters; such a person's actions are the guide in determining whether an individual's actions were reasonable person who appeals a decision to a higher court 1 (US) plaintiff 2 (US) also petitioner Unit 1 The practice of law ~ ning 1: c e in 12..;:: Listen to Cjlawyer telling a client about some of the documents involved in his case and answer these questions. 1 What claim has been filed against the client? 2 Will the case go to trial? 1 affidavit 13Match these documents (1-9) with their definitions (a-i). a a document informing someone that they will be involved in a legal process and instructing them what they must do b a document or set of documents containing the details about a court case c a document providing notification of a fact, claim or proceeding d a formal written statement setting forth the cause of action or the defence in a case e a written statement that somebody makes after they have sworn officially to tell the truth, which might be used as proof in court f an application to a court to obtain an order, ruling or decision g an official order from a court for a person to stop doing something h in civil law, the first pleading filed on behalf of a plaintiff, which initiates a lawsuit, setting forth the facts on which the claim is based i the principal pleading by the defendant in response to a complaint 14..;:: Listen again and tick the documents that the lawyer mentions. 1 answer D 2 affidavit D 3 brief D 4 complaint D 5 injunction D 6 motion D 7 notice D 8 pleading D 9 writ D 2 answer 3 brief 4 complaint 5 injunction 6 motion 7 notice 8 pleading 9 writ 15Match each verb used by the lawyer (1-5) with its definition (a-e). 1 to drafta document 2 to issuea document 3 to filea document withan authority 4 to servea document onsomeone (or to servesomeone with a document) 5 to submita document to an authority a to deliver a legal document to someone, demanding that they go to a court of law or that they obey an order b to produce a piece of writing or a plan that you intend to change later c to deliver a document formally for a decision to be made by others d to officially record something, especially in a court of law e to produce something official 16Decide which of the nouns in Exercise 13 can go with these verbs. The first one has been done for you. 1 draft GU'I GU'lSLrVer,Ov brief, Ov compLoint, Ov mohon, Ov p~g 2 issue 3 file (with) 4 serve (on someone) 5 submit , n LawyersuseLatinwordsand expressionswhenwriting legal texts of everykind, from statutesto emails. Thefollowing excerptis from the legal documentknownas an 'answer'.It wassubmitted to the court by the defendantfrom Listening1. 17 Underline the common Latin words and phrases in the text. Do you know what they mean? 18 Match each Latin word or expression (1-8) with its English equivalent and the explanation of its use (a-h). a thus (used after a word to indicate the original, usually incorrect, spelling or grammar in a text) b for example (used before one or more examples are given) c for this purpose (often used as an adjective before a noun) d against (versus is abbreviated to 'v.' in case citations, but to 'vs.' in all other instances) e and others (usually used to shorten a list of people, often a list of authors, appellants or defendants) 6 per se f and other things of the same kind (used to shorten a list of similar items) 7 sic g by itself (often used after a noun to indicate the thing itself) 8 versus (vs. or v.) h that is (used to signal an explanation or paraphrase of a word preceding it) 19 Match each Latin term (1-10) with its English equivalent (a-j). 1 ad hoc 2 et alii (et al.) 3 et cetera (etc.) 4 exempli gratia (e.g.) 5 id est (i.e.) 1 de facto 2 ipso facto 3 inter alia 4 per annum 5 pro forma 6 pro rata 7 quorum 8 sui juris 9 ultra vires 10 videlicet (viz.) a among other things b per year c number of shareholders or directors who have to be present at a board meeting so that it can be validly conducted d in fact e of one's own right; able to exercise one's own legal rights f proportionally g by that very fact itself h as a matter of form i as follows j beyond the legal powers of a person or a body Unit 1 The practice of law E PARTII:A CAREERIN THELAW ning 2: 20..:;: Several different words can be used to refer to a lawyer. Listen to three law students in the UK talking about the kind of work they would like to do when they have completed their law studies. Write the correct word for lawyer in the gaps. Anna: Daniel: Anna: Jacob: 21Discuss these questions. 1 Does your native language have more than one word for lawyer? Do they correspond to the different English words for lawyer mentioned above? If not, how do the concepts differ? 2 What is each type of legal practitioner in your jurisdiction entitled to do? 3 What English term do you use to describe your job or the job you would like to do? 22a Combine the nouns in the box with the verbs below to make combinations to describe the work lawyers do. Some of the verbs go with more than one noun. cases clients disputes law contracts legislation corporations decisions defendants 1 advise 2 draft 3 litigate 4 practise 5 represent 6 research b Choose three 'verb + noun' pairs from above and write sentences using them. 23Choose the words from the box which can be combined with the word lawyer to describe different types of lawyer. Say what each one does. bar corporate defence public-sector sole tax government trial patent practitioner ~ on: e In English-speaking countries, the Bar is a term for the legal profession itself, while a bar association is the association which regulates the profession. A person who qualifies to practise law is admitted to the Bar; on the other hand, to disbar a lawyer is to make him or her unable to practise law. The following text is an excerpt from a guide written for schoolleavers about courses of study in English-speaking countries. This section of the guide deals with the study of law and the requirements for entering the legal profession in the UKand the USA. 24Read the text and say whether legal education in your country is more similar to the UKor the US model. a ~ as ata set of barristers' of grollPs 0£20+60 barristers. l solicitor must also complete ga~I1iI1ga law degree; the second stage Practice Course (LPC); and the final as a trainee solicitor with a firm of of a local authority or large company. Studying law in the USA the a legal education comprises four years of undergraduate study followed by three of law school. A law-school graduate receives the degree of juris doctor G.D.). In order to qualifY as a lawyer, a lawschool graduate must pass the bar examination. 25Find terms with the word bar in the introduction to this section and in the text above which match these definitions. 1 a lawyer who is qualified to plead on behalf of clients 2 in the UK, a training course which enables people who wish to become barristers and who have registered with the Inns of Court to acquire the skills and knowledge to prepare them for the specialised training of the pupillage 3 a ceremony held at the end of this training course, when a candidate enters the profession 4 organisation regulating the legal profession 5 in the USA, an important test taken by law-school graduates which, when passed, qualifies a person to practise law 6 granted entrance to the legal profession 7 to compel a lawyer to stop practising law due to an offence committed Unit 1 The practice of law ~ c 26Read the following CV(curriculum vitae)1 of a young British lawyer and answer these questions. 1 Where did he work in summer 2002? 2 What languages does he speak? 3 Where did he complete his first degree? 4 What was his main duty at the European Commission? 5 What is he doing now? EDUCATION 2000-2004 2DD2-2003 . Nationality: British Date of birth: 12 May 1982 Universite Paris X, Paris, France DEUG (French law degree), Nanterre Part of the degree programme at University of Essex included an intensive course in French. Among subjects studied: European Community Law, Information Law, Civil Law and Penal Law LEGALWORK EXPERIENCE June 2004- February 2005 Summers 2001 2004 Summer 2000 Europeat\Co1.llmissioll, Brussels, Belgium Legal Assistant witl1in the LegalDepartrnent ofthe Service Commtine Relex (SCR).Drafting opip.ions in EngliSl1 and French dealing with contracts awarded for projects G. R. Foster &Co. Solicitors, Cambridge, UK Liaison with clients; conductil1gresearch into multiple legal areas, including family law, tort law and contracts; assisting with trial preparation Westlake Chambers, Bath, UK Mini-pupillage, involving shadowing a number of counsel; assisted in daily activities Languages: SKILLS AND QUALIFICATIONS Native English speaker; fluent in French (written and spoken); upper -intermediate Swedish Computing: Proficient in Word, Windows, email Membership: The Law Society Strong researching and writing skills INTERESTS Skiing, French history, chess References available upon request , 1 (US) resume or resume . nlng 3: 27.. ~ Linus Walker has applied for a position at a law firm. Listen to his job interview and answer these questions. 1 What does Mr Nichols say about the atmosphere of the firm? 2 What does Linus say about the size of the firm? 28.. ~ Listen again and complete this organigram of the firm using the words in the box. Associate Full Partners Mr Robertson Paralegal Real Property Salaried Partner 1), Mr Michaels Senior Partners 3)' Department Salaried Partner Debtor-Creditor Department 4) ................ Secretary Associate 5) . 6)................ Paralegal Associate Associate Paralegal Paralegal Associate ng 3: bing 29Look at the following phrases used by Mr Nichols to describe the firm. Which can be used to speak of a department or company, and which of a person? Which can be used for both? ... is/are headed by... ... is/are assisted by ... ... is/are managed by... ... is/are responsible for ... ... is/are in charge of ... ... report to ... 30Using the phrases in Exercise 29, describe the structure of a law firm with which you are familiar or the one just described in Listening 3. Refer to the positions and duties of the personnel. Unit 1 The practice of law E .. 31.. ~ Listen to five lawyers talking about their firms, practice areas and clients. Tick the information you hear about each speaker. Speaker 1 ... 1 has a few years' working experience. 0 2 works as a clerk at a mid-size commercial law firm. 0 3 will get to know other departments of the firm. 0 4 meets with clients regularly. 0 5 plans to specialise in commercial litigation. 0 Speaker 2 ... 1 is a sole practitioner. 2 works in the area of employment law. 3 deals with wage disputes. 4 represents clients in mediation. 5 has many clients who are small businesses. Speaker3 ... 1 works in the area of secured transactions. 2 carries out trade-mark registrations. 3 assists clients who are in artistic professions. 4 serves as an expert witness in court. 5 is a partner in a large IP firm. Speaker 4 ... 1 is a senior partner in a mid-size law firm. 2 specialises in competition law. 3 represents clients before the employment tribunal. 4 deals with infringements of the Competition Act. 5 has clients in the telecommunications sector. Speaker 5 ... 1 owns shares in his firm. 2 argues cases in court. 3 works in the area of real property law. 4 represents landlords but not tenants. 5 teaches courses on litigation at the law university. 32Discuss these questions. 00000 00000 1 Which kind of firm do you work in or would you like to work in? 2 Which areas of the law have you specialised in or would like to specialise in? ni 5: c 33Read this excerpt from an article in a law-school newspaper about law firm culture. Which type of firm would you prefer to work for? Why? , size. Law firms from a one-person practice (conducted 34..;:: Listen to Richard, a law student, talking to a group of first-year law students at an orientation event at law school. He tells them about his experience as a clerk in different law firms. Answer these questions. 1 Why do the professors encourage students to do work experience? 2 How long have Richard's clerkships generally lasted? 3 What is Richard's final piece of advice? 35..;:: Listen again and tick the advantages of small and large law firms Richard mentions. In some cases, he says both types of firm have the same advantage. 36Discuss these questions. 1 Do you have any experience working as a clerk in a law firm? In what ways was it similar or different from Richard's experience? 2 What kinds of tasks and responsibilities do clerks in your firm have? 3 Do you agree with the way Richard characterises small and large law firms? Unit 1 To improve your web-based research skills, visit www.cambridge.orgjeltjlegalenglish.click on Research Tasks and choose Task 1. Unit 1 The practice of law E 2 Companylaw:companyformation andmanagement~ '" Reading 1: Introduction to company Law Thistext providesan introductionto the keyterms used whentalkingabout companiesas legal entities, how they are formed and how they are managed. It also covers the legal duties of company directors and the courts' role in policing them. 1 Read the text quickly, then match these phrases (a-f) with the paragraphs (1-6). a directors' duties b management roles c company definition d company health e partnership definition f company formation 1 A . officers and shareholders. This is significant, as allowsthe company oWr;! property in rts own name, continue perpetually despite changes in ownership, and insulate the owners against personal liability. However,il)some instances, for example when the companYis used to p:rpetrate frauclor act$ Ult~~~i~eSii~~clJoeurt may'lift2 toe corno.rate<-veil' subiect the shareholders Itaf3'Jlity.""If 2 Bycontrast, a partnership is a business association which, strictly speaking, iis not considered to be a legal entity but, rather, merely an association of o\Ainers. blowev~r, in order to avoid impractical results, such as~lJe par~nership being precluded fr().mowntn~ pwtD.ertvWitts own tre~~ia pa:~~rJersltr.rl!Jias Nonetheless, partners are n()tinsulated against personal liabilitY,and the to exist upon a change in o\Ainership,for example, when one of the partners dies. may cease 3 Acompanyis formed upon the issuaoce of a certificate of incorporation3by governmental certificatec<;i>nfcorporati~bis documents of the company,together withstatutory forms and payment of a filingfee. The 'constitution' of a companyconsists of two documents. One, the memorandum of association4, states the objects of the companyand the details of its authorised capital, otherwise knownas the nominalcapital. The second document, the articles of association5, contains for the internal management ofthe company,for e~mple;fshareholders!i~nnual'ige AGMs,and extraordinary general meetings7, the board of directors, corporate contracts loans. 4 The management of a companyis carried out by its officers,who includea director,manager and/or companysecretary.Adirector is appointed to carry out ana controlthe day-to-dayaffairs of the icn company,are determined co~panY's'§rticles;jofasspciation. Amahage, supervisorycontrol of the affairs of the company.Amanager's duties to the companyare generally more burdensome than those of the employees,who basicallyowe a duWof confidentialityto the company.Everycompanymust have a companysecretary, who cannot also be the sole director of ~ 1 (US) corporation 2 (US) pierce 3 (US) generally no official certificate is issued; companies are formed upon the filing of the articles/certificate of incorporation (see footnote 4) 4 (US) articles of incorporation or certificate of incorporation 5 (US) bylaws 6 (US) annual meetings of the shareholders 7 (US) special meetings of the shareholders , 8 (US) financial statements 9 (US) profit-and-Ioss statement or income statement 10 (US) stock dividend 11 (US) cash dividend .. .In e 2 Some of the important roles in company management are discussed in Reading 1 above. Which roles are mentioned? 3 Here is a more comprehensive list of roles in company management. Match the roles (1-10) with their definitions (a-j). 1 auditor 2 company secretary 3 director 4 liquidator 5 managing director 6 official receiver 7 promoter 8 proxy 9 receiver 10shareholder a person appointed by a shareholder to attend and vote at a meeting in his/her place when the shareholder is unable to attend b company director responsible for the day-to-day operation of the company c person elected by the shareholders to manage the company and decide its general policy d person engaged in developing or taking the initiative to form a company (arranging capital, obtaining personnel, making arrangements for filing corporate documentation) e person appointed by the company to examine the company's accounts and to report to the shareholders annually on the accounts f company's chief administrative officer, whose responsibilities include accounting and finance duties, personnel administration and compliance with employment legislation, security of documentation, insurance and intellectual property rights g member of the company by virtue of an acquisition of shares in a company h officer of the court who commonly acts as a liquidator of a company being wound up by the court i person appointed by creditors to oversee the repayment of debts j person appointed by a court, the company or its creditors to wind up the company's affairs Unit 2 Companylaw: companyformation and management E ning 1: on Lawyersplayimportantrolesin the formationof a company,advisingclientswhich entities are mostsuited to their needsand ensuringthat the properdocumentsare duly filed. Youare goingto heara conversationbetweenan Americanlawyer,MsNorris,and her client, MrO'Hara.Thelawyerdescribeshowa specifictype of corporationis formed in the state of Delaware. 4 ..;:: Listen to the conversation and tick the documents required for formation that the lawyer mentions. 1 DBA filing 2 articles of incorporation 3 stock ledger 4 general partnership agreement 5 stock certificates 6 IRS & State S Corporation election 7 bylaws 8 organisational board resolutions DDDDDDD D 5 Company types (USA)Look at the following table, which provides information on the documents required to form and operate the different company types in the United States. Based on what you heard in Exercise 4, which type of business association was the lawyer discussing with her client? 6 Company types (UK)The table on page 23 contains information about five types of common UK business associations, covering the aspects of liability of owners, capital contributions and management. (In many jurisdictions in the world, there are entities which share some or all of these characteristics.) Look at the table and decide which entity (a-e) is being described in each row (1-5). a private limited company (Ltd) b general partnership c public limited company (PLC) d limited partnership e sole proprietorship 2: e on An important document in company formation is the memorandum of association [UK]or articles/certificate of incorporation [USA].This document sets forth the objects of the company and its capital structure; as such, it represents a legally binding declaration of intent to which the members of the company must adhere. 7 Below is an extract from the articles of incorporation of a US company. Read through the text quickly and tick the issues it addresses. 1 appointing members of the board of directors D 2 changing corporation bylaws D 3 procedures for holding a vote of the shareholders D 4 stipulations for keeping corporation records D The power to alter, amend or repeal the bylaws or to adopt new bylaws vested in the Board of Directors; provided, however, that any bylaw or amendment thereto as adopted by the Board of Directors may be altered, amended or repealed by a vote of the shareholders entitled to vote for the election of directors, or a new bylaw in lieu thereofm.aybe adopted by 5 vote of such shareholders. No bylaw which has been altered, amended or adopted by such a vote of the shareholders may be altered, amended or repealed by vote of the directors until two years have expired since such action by vote of such shareholders. [...] The CorporatioIJ,shall keep as permanent records minutes of all meetings of its shareholders a;nd directors, a record of all action taken by the shareholders or the 10 directors Without a meeting, and a record of all actions taken by a committee of the directors in place of the Board of Directors on behalf of the Corporation. The Corporation appropriate accounting records. The Corporation, or its agent, shall shareholders in a form that permits preparation of a list of the shareholders, in alphabetical order, by class of shares, showing held by each. Unit 2 Companylaw:companyformationand management E 8 Read the text again and decide whether these statements are true or false. 1 The board of directors only has the power to change the bylaws if the shareholders in turn have the power to amend any changes made by the board of directors. 2 The board of directors is proscribed at all times from changing any bylaw which has been altered by a vote of the shareholders. 3 Records must only be kept of decisions reached by shareholders and directors in the course of a meeting. 4 Records of the shareholders must list the number of shares they own. 9 For each of these words or phrases, find the italicised word(s) in the text that most closely matches its meaning. 1 passed 2 who have the right to 3 instead 4 on condition 5 cancelled 6 revised 7 given to 9 e *. 10Read through the text on page 23 again, noting how shall and may are used. 1 Which of these words most closely matches the meaning of shall in each case? a)will b)must 2 What do you notice about the use of shall in line 7? 3 Which of these words most closely matches the meaning of may in the text? a)can b)could In legal documents, the verb shall is used to indicate obligation, to express a promise or to make a declaration to which the parties involved bound. This use differs from everyday speech, used to make offers (Shall I open the (I shall miss you), although In legal texts, shall Every notice of the meeting of the shareholders shallstate the place, date and hour. or 'will' (in the sense of a promise): The board of directors shallhave the power to Shall can also be used in until shareholders. In everyday speech, present perfect ( until expresses everyday English): any bylaw or ar: be altered, amended In everyday indicating probability ning 2: b in in the Youwillheara dialogue in whicha lawyer,MrLarsen,discussessomeof the characteristics of two business entities with MrWiseberg, a client who is interested in forming a company in the UK. 11..::: Listen to the phone conversation and tick the two company types the men are discussing. 1 sole proprietor 2 UK limited partnership 3 UKprivate company limited by shares 4 UKprivate company limited by guarantee 5 UK public limited company 6 US C corporation 7 US S corporation DDDDDD D 12..::: Listen again and decide whether these statements are true or false. 1 The client has not yet decided what type of company he wants to form. 2 The client has never founded a company before. 3 The lawyer points out that the two types of company differ with regard to the matter of personal liability. 4 The shares of a US C corporation can be freely traded on a stock exchange. 5 Both company types mentioned by the lawyer can be formed by a person who is a citizen of another country. 6 The UKcompany type discussed places a restriction on the number of people permitted to buy shares in the company. 7 The fastest way to form a company is to submit the documents directly to Companies House. 13In the dialogue, the lawyer compares and contrasts two company types. Complete the sentences below using the phrases in the box. a are like each other b are similar to c differs d in both e that's not the case with f there is one big difference between 1 C corporations, ., , ,...,.., private limited companies in the UKin many ways, particularly in respect of liability. 2 Shareholders are not personally liable for the debts of the corporation """""""'" a C corporation and a private limited company. 3 In this respect, a private limited company. ' ,.. . Its shares are not available to the general public. 4 The two types of company , in that both can be founded by persons of any nationality, who need not be a resident of the country. 5 And , a C corporation in the US and our private limited company: that's the limit on the number of shares. 6 But """"""" a private limited company. The Companies Act stipulates that not more than 50 members can hold shares within the company. Unit2 Company law: company formation and management E s n9: I p ion: When speaking briefly about a topic of professTonalinterest. experienced speakers will organise their thoughts advapce. A simple but effective structure divides information into three parts: 1 introductory remarks; 2 main points; 3 concluding statement. Similarly, the main points are bestlim.ited to three,as this is easy for the speaker to remember and for the listener to .follow. Notes for a response to Exercise 14 might look like this: Date: 2015-12-11; view: 2958
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