Great Britain_

In prehistoric times Britain was joined to the rest of Europe. The first people, came there over dry land. Towards the end of the Ice Age the low-lying land areas became covered with water, and thus the present English Channel was formed. The hunters of the New Stone Age crossed the sea to Britain to the west of tie Channel and settled along the Western shores in their search of food. First inhabitants of the island for whom a traditional name exists are the Iberian or Megalithic people, who lived mainly in the western part of the country. They are thought to have come from the region of the Mediterranean Sea (the Iberian peninsula where Spain is located) somewhere after 3000 B.C.. Soon after 2000 B.C. another people entered the country from the east of Eufope. The two peoples intermixed.

The Celts arrived from Central Europe after 800 B.C. The name "Britain" comes from the name of a Celtic tribe known as the Britons who settled in the country. The Celts spoke the Celtic language. The influence of the Celts was greatest in Wales, Scotland and Ireland. They were driven to these parts by the invaders who followed them. Due to this, these parts of Britain are very different from England in language, custom, traditions.

Welsh is one of the Celtic languages, like Scottish and Irish Gaelic. Scottish Gaelic and Irish Gaelic are still spoken in Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Caesar, the Roman ruler, first invaded Britain in 35 B.C., because Caesar knew that Britain produced corn which the Romans needed. Tin, widely used in Rome, was exported from Cornwall. And the Romans needed a fresh supply of slaves. Moreover, the Celts in Britain helped their kinsmen in Gaul in their struggle against the Romans who wanted to conquer them. However, Caesar's first expedition was not successful, because his force was small, and the Celts fought well. So in the following year, that is in 54 B.C., he invaded the country with a larger army of 25,000 men. This time the expedition was successful, and the Celts were defeated. But Caesar did not stay in Britain. He left the country with many slaves and other riches, and he received a promise from the Celts that they would pay a regular tribute to Rome.

Some 90 years later, that is in A.D. 43 the country was conquered by the Romans. This occupation of Britain continued to the beginning of the fifth century. In the south and south-eastern parts Roman influence was greatest, while in the north and west the country remained much untouched.

Many towns were built by the Romans which were connected by good roads. Some of these roads still exist to this very day. For example, Watling Street from London to Chester, or Icknield Way connecting London with Cirencester. Most British towns with names ending with "chester" were, in Roman times, fortified camps. The largest of the towns was called Londinium. It began life as a Roman fort at a place where it was possible to cross the river Thames. Many believe that here was a Celtic settlement called "Llyn-dyn" which meant "lake-fort". Life in the south-east of Britain resembled life in Rome, and there was a lively trade between Britain and the continent. However, when the Romans left the country at the beginning of the 5th century, Britain became open to the attacks of newcomers from the continent who destroyed Roman civilization and culture.

After the departure of the Romans, the Celts remained independent for some time, but quite soon the country began to be attacked by Germanic tribes from the continent. The Jutes and the Angles came from the Jutland peninsula (today southern Denmark) and the Saxons from the territory between the Rhine and Elbe rivers (northern Germany). At first they came as mercenaries hired by Celtic tribal chiefs who fought one against the other, then seeing that the country was weak to defend itself, they came in great numbers conquering it altogether.

The Jutes landed in Kent (the south-east) somewhere in 450. They were followed by the Angles and the Saxons so that by the end of the 5th century the greater part of the country (with the exception of Wales, Cornwall and Scotland) became occupied by the invaders. The Angles settled mainly to the north of the Thames, and quite soon the country began to be called "the land of the Angles", later "Engla-land" and as you easily see England. The Saxons settled in the south, south- west and partially east forming the ancient kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex and Essex. The Anglo-Saxons and Jutes were close to each other in speech and customs, and they gradually formed into one people referred to as the Anglo-Saxons.

Although the German invaders occupied most of the British Isles, certain areas remained unconquered. They were Wales, Cornwall, the northern part of Britain, Ireland. Many of the Celts who survived after the attacks of the Germanic tribes fled to these parts of the country. Thus Celtic culture continued to exist in the parts of Britain which were mentioned above. The northern part of Britain was the home of the Picts and Scots. After the conquest of the Picts by the Scots in the 9th century this northern territory came to be called Scotland and a united Scottish kingdom was formed in the 11th century.

The Saxon kingdoms fought one against the other, at times one kingdom would become stronger, then another, but at the beginning of the 9th century Wessex became the leading kingdom and united the rest of England in the fight against the Danes, who came from present-day Denmark. Since 829 the greater part of the country was united under the name England.

An important event which contributed to the unification of the country and the development of culture was the adoption of Christianity in England in 664. Christianity began to spread in England much earlier. It is connected with the name of St. Augustine who founded the Church of England in 597.

9GB Describe GB as a const. Monarchy and its role and social influence.
The UK is one of the few developed countries where a constitutional monarchy has survived with its ages-old customs, traditions and ceremonies. There is no written const, in GB. There are 2 basic principles of the British constitution; THE ROLES OF LAW and THE ROLES OF CUSTOMS. In 1215 Magna Carta was accepted which was aimed to limit the powers of the king. In 1265 the 1st parliament was summoned. Since then British const, has evolved as a result of countless Acts of parliament. A constitutional monarch is one who .can rule only with the support of parlament.. The Bill of Rights [1689) was a major legal step to const, monarchy.

Since 1689 the power of parliament has grown steadily, while the power of the monarch has weakened. Today the Queen reigns, though she doesn't rule. Being a constitutional monarch the Queen acts on the advice of her prime minister and doesn't make any major-political decisions. The Queen is not only the head of state, but also the symbol of the nation unity. The QUEEN-personifies the state, she is head of the executive, an integral part of legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander in chief of all armed forces, the supreme governor of the established Church of England the Anglican church and the personal Head of the Common wealth. The functions of Q:
1) summoning, proroguing, dissolving Parliament 2) giving royal assent to Bills passed by both Houses 3) appointing every important office holder, including government ministers, judges, officers in armed forces etc. 4)conferring peerages, knighthoods and other honours.5) She appoints the Prime Minister to form a government of state.6) In international affairs the Q has the power to declare war, make peace, recognize foreign states and governments etc., she is informed and consulted on every issue in national life. 7)Q is Head of the Commonwealth where she is represented by the Governor-General appointed by her on the advice of the government of the. country concerned and completely independent of the British government. The general public supports the idea of preserving the Royal family traditions. The 'latter has also become more flexible and open to public. The crown provides unity and stability to Britain and the Commonwealth

6.GB
The population of the UK now is more than 60 rain people.

Recently, there have been many waves of immigration into Britain and movement within the U.K. For example, many people from Wales, Scotland and Ireland have settled in England. Many foreigners settled in Britain since the beginning of the 20th century. Commonwealth citizens could enter Britain quite freely until 1962, while people from other countries had to receive special permits. Before the Second World Bar most of the Immigrants came from the old dominions: Canada, Australia, Mew Zealand, South Africa. In the late 1930s many Jews came from Germany because of fascist persecution, as well as Poles and people of-other nationalities from Eastern Europe. After 1952 many immigrants came to Britain from the West Indies, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Hong Kong, from some countries of Africa. At this time the British economy was developing rapidly and it needed cheap labour. The immigrants were poor and out of work and had been told there were jobs for them in Britain.

Black and Asian people can be seen in every city of Britain, but there is a greater concentration of them in larger cities, where it is easier to find work, such as London, Birmingham, Bradford, Coventry, Manchester and others. Today, more than 5 million people of non-white origin live in Britain and over 80 per cent of them were born in Britain, thus they are British, but with a different colour of their skin. The immigrants usually take the lowest paid jobs, and when there is unemployment they are the first to lose work. In spite of the laws to protect them, there was still discrimination against the non-whites. This led to serious disturbances in many cities of Britain in the early 1980s.

With the movement of people among the countries of the European Union of which Britain is a member, more and more people enter Britain from continental Europe. Today there are many Italians, Greeks, Spaniards, and Portuguese living in Britain The arrival of many foreigners has changed life in present-day Britain. British culture has been enriched through its contact with other cultures. For example, the eating and cooking habits of the British have changed. The service sector has also unproved considerably due to the arrival of immigrants. There are many shops run by South Koreans and Vietnamese which are open 24 hours, and any customer can drop in any time to buy things which he needs.

Cultural life has also become interesting due to its diversity. You can visit different exhibitions, enjoy new theatrical performances, music. Today Britain is a multiracial society which benefits from the influences of different peoples and cultures.

10GB The structure and composition of the Br. Parliament. The reform of the House of Lords and its role. The House of Commons, composition, role.
There are 3 elements of the Br. Parliament - the Queen and the 2 Houses of Parl, (the H. of Lords and the elected H. of Commons). These elements ace separate, constituted on different principles and meet only on occasions of symbolic significance. The supreme legislative authority in GB, parliament, resides in Westminster Palace, and all its power is concentrated in the B.C. Members of parl, are elected at general election which is usually held every 5 years. The arrangement of seating in both Houses reflects the party system. Both debating chambers are rectangular in shape and have at one end the seat of the Speaker, and the other end a technical barrier. Leaders of the Government and the Opposition sit on the front benches of their respective to the seat of the Speaker. The HL consists of Lords Spiritual (senior bishops) and Lords Temporal (lay peers). Members are not elected, the HL underwent a major reform in 1999. The hereditary lords or peers lost the right to sit in the HL. The number of Conservative peers reduced. The procedure of the HL is rather informal and is comparable to that of the HC. The Lord Chancellor presides over the House as its Speaker. There is no Minister of Justice but the Lord Chancellor performs some of its functions. The HL consists of 675 members. HL also includes ministers, government Whips, the Leader of the main opposition party and 2 Chairmen of the Committees. The House of Commons is elected by the adult population. Consists of 646 MPs. The chief officer of the HC is the speaker. He is elected by the House at the beginning of each Parl.. His chief function is to preside over the H. in its debate. When elected. The Speaker must not belong to any party. The HC has .6. administrative and executive departments: 1) of the Clerk of the House 2) of the Sergeant at Arms 3) of the Library 4} of the official Report 5) Administration Dep. 6) Refreshment Dep. The 6 adm. Departments are under the supervision of the HC Commission composed by the MPs, and chaired by the Speaker.

13GB Parliamentary government

The party which, wins most seats (but not necessarily most votes) at a general election, or which has the support of a majority of the members in the House of Commons, usually forms the. government. On occasions when no party succeeds in winning an overall majority of seats, a minority Government or a coalition may be formed. The leader of the majority party is appointed Prime Minster by the Sovereign, and all other ministers are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The majority of ministers are members of the Commons, although the Government is represented by some ministers in the Lords Since the late 19 century the Prime Minister has normally been the leader of the party with a majority in the House of Commons. The monarch's role in government is virtually limited to acting on the advice of ministers.

The Prime Minister informs the Queen of the general business of the Government, presides over the Cabinet, and is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers, recommends to the Queen a number of important appointments. Ministers in charge of Government departments, who are usually in the Cabinet, are known as 'Secretaries of State or 'Ministers', or may have a traditional title, as in the case of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Postmaster General, the President of the Board of Trade. All these are known as departmental ministers. The Lord Chancellor (the Speaker of the House of Lords) holds a special position, being a minister with departmental functions and also head of the judiciary in England and Hales.

Ministers of State (non-departmental) work with ministers in charge of departments with responsibility for specific functions, and are sometimes given courtesy titles which reflect these particular functions. More than one may work in a department. Junior ministers (generally Parliamentary Secretaries or Under-Secretaries of State) share in parliamentary and departmental duties. They may also be given responsibility directly under the departmental minister, for specific aspects of the department's work.

The largest minority party becomes the official opposition with its own leader and its own 'shadow cabinet’ whose members act as spokesmen on the subjects for which government ministers have responsibility. The members of any other party support or oppose the Government according to their party policy being debated at any given time.

The Government has the major share in controlling and arranging the business of the House. As the initiator of policy, it dictates what action it wishes Parliament to take.

A modern British Government consists of over ninety people, of whom about thirty are heads of departments, and the rest are their assistants. Until quite recent times all the heads of departments were included in the Cabinet, but when their number rose some of the less important heads of departments were oat included in the Cabinet. The Prime .Minister, decides whom to include.

The Cabinet is composed of about 20 ministers and nay include departmental and non-departmental ministers. The prime ministers may make changes in the size of their Cabinet and may create new ministries or make other changes.

The Cabinet as such is not recognized by any formal law, and it has no formal powers but only real powers. It takes the effective decisions about what is to be done. Its major functions are: the final determination

of policies, the supreme control of government and the coordination of government departments. More and more power is concentrated in the hands of the Cabinet, where the decisive role belongs to the Prime Minster, who in fact determines the general political line of this body. The Cabinet defends and encourages the activity of monopolies and big business, does everything to restrain and suppress the working-class movement. The County Councilor county) is the most important .unit of local government. The District Councils-for districts.

14GB

The 20th century witnessed an intensive process of decolonisation of the British Empire(the last Br. colony Hong Kong was reverted to China in 1997). A tendency to decolonise grew into a desire to form a great family, a special union, for economic, cultural & social reasons. The Commonwealth of Nations, usually known as the Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of 53 independent sovereign states, most of which are former British colonies, or dependencies of these colonies (the exceptions being the United Kingdom itself and Mozambique). The Commonwealth is an international organization through which countries with diverse social, political, and-economic backgrounds co­operate within a framework of common values and goals, outlined in the Singapore Declaration. These include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, the rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism. free trade, multilateralism, and world peace.

Queen Elizabeth II is the Head of the Commonwealth, recognized by each state, and as such is the symbol of the free association of the organization’s members. This position, however, does not imply political power over Commonwealth member states. In practice, the Queen heads the Commonwealth in a symbolic capacity, and it is the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is the chief executive of the organization. The Commonwealth is not a political union, and does not allow the United Kingdom to exercise any power over the affairs of the organization’s other members. Elizabeth II is also the Head of State, separately, of sixteen members of the Commonwealth, called Commonwealth realms. As each realm is an independent kingdom, Elizabeth II, as monarch, holds a distinct jjtk for each.

Every four years the Commonwealth's members celebrate the Commonwealth Games, the world's second-largest multi-sport event after the Olympic Games. Commonwealth Dayton the 2nd Monday in March. The Commonwealth secretariat provides the central organization for consultation & co-operation among member states. Established in London in 1965, headed by the heads of Government & financed by member Governments, the Secretariat is responsible to Commonwealth Governments collectively. The Secretariat promotes consultation, disseminates info on matters of common concern, & organizes meetings & coferences. Membership criteria: be fully sovereign states; recognise the monarch of the Commonwealth realms as the Head of the commonwealth; accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication; respect the wishes of the general population vis-a-vis Commonwealth membership The Commonwealth's objectives were first outlined in the 1971 Singapore Declaration, which committed the Commonwealth to the institution of world peace: promotion of the pursuit of equality and opposition to racism; the fight against poverty, ignorance, and disease; and free trade. To these were added opposition to discrimination on the basis of gender, and environmental attainability. These objectives were reinforced by the Harare Declaration in 1991.

The Comnonwealth is also useful as an international organisation that represents significant cultural and historical links between wealthy first-world countries and poorer nations with diverse social and religious backgrounds.

15GB
The educational system of GB has developed for over a 100 years. 3 partners are responsible for the education service: central government- the Department of Education & Science(DES)(assisted by Her Majesty's inspectorate), local education authorities(LEAs)provision day-to-day running of the schools and colleges in their areas, the recruitment and payment of the teachers, the head(a Chief Education Officer) and schools themselves. The legal basis for this partnership is supplied by the 1944 Education Act. Compulsory education in GB begins at the age of 5, and the minimum school leaving age is 16. Education is provided both in publicly maintained(state) schools(no tuition fees are payable)-'public sector', & in private independent schools-'private sector (have to pay)- Education within the state school system comprises either 2 stages - primary & secondary, or 3 stage-first schools, middle spools, upper schools. Nursery education- in nursery schools or in nursery classes attached to primary schoolchildren 3-5, some sort of play, activity, as Car as possible of an educational kind). Primary school (5-11) Middle school(8-14) is a sort of a compromise between primary c secondary education. The Upper School keeps middle school leavers until the age of 18. This 3-stage system is becoming more & more popular.

Secondary education is compulsory up to the age of 16,6 pupils may stay here

until they are 10. S. schools are much larger than primary & most children go to comprehensive schools (11-18)- admit children of all abilities in a given area &provide a wide range of different courses.

3types:1)11-18. 2)middle School leavers 12,13,14 -18, 3)the age group 11-16. In some areas children moving from Primary to Secondary education are still selected for certain types of school according to their current level of academic attainment. These are:

Grammar schools provide a manly academic education for 11-18 age

group preparing for higher education.

Technical schools- a manly academic education for 11-18 age group, place

emphasis on technical subjects.

Secondary modern schools offer a more general education with a practical bias up to the minimum school-leaving age of 16(cannot enter the university but start work).

There are special school adapted for the physically £ mentally handicapped

children(5-16). These schools & their classes are more generously staffed £ provide different forms of treatment. They can be both state or private. Though limited in number, the largest & most important of the independent schools are the public schools(12-13) on the basis of the strict selection. They are fee-charging & very expensive, their standards for entries are very high, & more concerned with examinations & universities. The pupils are the children of the rich parents. The principal examinations taken by secondary school pupils at the age of 16 are those leading to the General Certificate of Secondary Education. The chief examinations are leading to the General.Certificate of Education Advanced level.

Admission to universities is by examination or interviews. Applications are sent to the Universities & Colleges Admission Services - you can list up to 5 universities or Colleges.

16GB.Further education- all post school education.

Young people at 16 have several options: l)stay on at school until 18 to obtain the necessary qualifications for entry to higher education or certain caress, professions. 2)to leave school but to continue full-time education in different further education institutions: the polytechnics, colleges of further education, of technology, of commerce, art, agricultural colleges, drama schools, art schools— All they have links with local industry £ commerce. British universities are independent, autonomous, self-governing institutions created from former polytechnics under the education reform Act 1988 & Further £ Higher education Act 1992. They are financially supported by the state, the Department of Education & Science has no control over their regulations, curriculum, examinations, appointment of staff...

3 groups; l)The Oxford, the Cambridge, the elder Scottish universities of St Andrew, Glasgow. Aberdeen £ Edinburgh. Oxford is older, more philosophical, classical, theological. Cambridge is more scientifically based. Both are like a federation of colleges, dominated British education for 7 hundred years.

2)The universities in Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, Sheffield. The University of London the largest conventional university, established by the union of 2 colleges; University College £ King's College, has many different faculties & departments.
3)The new universities were founded after the 2nd World War, became popular because of their modern approach to university courses. Keele University(1948), 1961- in East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Lancaster, Sussex, Warwick, York. The traditional faculty structure there has been avoided to prevent overspecialization. Polytechnics are centres for advanced courses in a wide range of subjects, take part-time students & serve as comprehensives of further education, take full-time students- their work is of university level (it's the higher education sector within further education) . The Open University(1969) created by the Labour Government to cater for people who hadn't had a chance to enter any other university, those above normal student age(21 & over). No formal academic qualification are required for entry, distance learning. It's a non-residential university, includes work with part-time tutors. The time of staying here is unlimited. Admission to universities is by examination or interviews. Applications are sent to the Universities & Colleges Admission Services(UCAS)- acts as clearing house & info-centre. You can list up to 5 universities or colleges.

17GB.
SCOTLAND
S. is divided into 3 parts: the Scottish Highlands occupies the mountain area in the northern part of the country, the Southern Uplands, covers lower hill area in he south £ the Central Lowlands occupying the wide valley which separates the other two areas.

The Central Lowlands- industrial heart of Scotland. Glasgow- seaport(trade with North America). Textile and clothing production is important, food products, furniture(office equipment are manufactured, (blending at Scotch whisky. Edinburgh -textile,paper manufacture, printing and publishing. Aberdeen -North sea oil; fishing industry. The natural conditions of Scotland have affected agriculture. The Central Lowlands -suited for canning, arable farming -in the east { barley, oats and wheat). In the Southern Uplands - sheep raising.
NORTHERN IRELAND N.Ireland has one of the largest concentrations of man-made fibre production in Western Europe. Textile manufacture -in Belfast. The manufacture of clothing and footwear is .developed. Londonderry specializes in the manufacture of shirts. Belfast -the province's main port. Belfast - textile manufacture, shipbuilding, aircraft production, electrical engineering & food processing.
THE MIDLANDS

Situated in the centre of GB between the South region and Lancashire&Yorkshire. Leading industrial region. Engineering& finishing of metals. Often is called the Black Country due to its mass industrialization. Birmingham -tradition of making guns. Famous articles in gold & silver. Producer of consumer goods. Coventry - motor industry. Wolver Hampton - heavy engineering, tyre production. Leicester & Nottingham - the knitwear

Industry & manufacture of knitting machines. Derby-important railway engineering centre. In the south-west -the Potteries, famous for its pottery and ceramics industry. Much of the region under grass. Dairy cattle -in the wetter west, beef cattle in the drier east. Sheep breeding. Principal crops -wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beet. Gardening.
LANCASHIRE

2 major centres: Mersevside (centre-

Liverpool):chemical industry, motor car industry) £ Greater Manchester (Manchester - general engineering,) Due to extensive industrial development agriculture is less developed.
YORKSHIRE Situated to the east of the Pennine mountains. 3 main industrial centres: Sheffield - a wide range of steel goods besides cutlery; Leeds - manufacture of cloathing, engineering); Scunthorpe - steel industry. Agriculture: sheep grazing on. the rough, pastures of area.

THE NORTH

2 main centres: 1-in the north-east near the rivers Tyne, Hear and Tees (Newcaatle-upon-Tyne); 2-in the north-vest in Cumberland (Workington, Whitehaven). Most important is the North -East (electrical engineerings engineering connected with construction work for the production of North Sea oil). Industrial development in the North-West is less extensive than in the North-East. Abundance of water- building a nuclear power station, which needs plenty of water for cooling. Agriculture is affected by the wet climate. Sheep grazing. In the North-East --more beef cattle than dairy cattle.
THE SOUTH ECONOMIC REGION The most important region in terms of

Industry & agriculture. Includes: all the South of England, both the South-East & theSouth-West. London -centre of everything. Clothing, furniture-makings jewellery. London's industries-.electrical engineering/ instrument production, radio engineering, aircraft production, the motor-ear industry. London -centre of the service industries, tourism.
OXFORD: educational centre; a large motor works were built in its suburb.
CAMBRIDGE: its industries connected with electronics & printing. LUTON: a major centre of car production. The Thames valley is an area of concentration of electronic engineering, microelectronics-"the sunrise strip". The South -major agricultural region of GB. Agricultural Specialization is different in:-South West(the main farming activity -dairying);-South East(cereals).
WALES South Hales -main area of industrial activity, centre for consumer & office electronics, automotive components, chemical & materials, aerospace, manufacture of optical(electrical equipment. Tourism. Cardiff (coalmining & iron industry). North Hales is mountainous and industrialization has had little effect here. Sheep raising is the main occupation of the population.

18GB. BRITISH ECONOMYToday Britain is no longer the leading industrial nation of the world, which it was during the last century. Today Britain is 5th in size of its gross domestic product(GDP).Britain's share in world trade is about 6%, which means that she is also the 5th largest trading nation in the world. Trade with the countries of the European Union, Commonwealth countries.

British economy based on private enterprise. The policy of the government is aimed at encouraging & expanding the private sector. Result: 751 of the economy is controlled by the private sector which employs 3/4of the labour force. Less than 2% of working population is engaged in agriculture. Due to large-scale mechanization productivity in agriculture is very high: it supplies nearly 2/3 of the countries food. The general location of industry: 80% _Of industrial production –England. In Wales, Scotland & Northem Ireland level of industry is lower than in England. This gap between England & the outlying regions increased because of the decline of the traditional industries, which are heavily concentrating in Wales, N.Ireland, Scotland. GB may be divided into 8 economic regions: 1) the South industrial & agricultural region 2}the Midlands 3)Lancashire 4)Yorkshire 5)the North 6)Scotland 7) Wales & Northern Ireland
THE SOUTH ECONOMIC REGION The most: important region in terms of industry & agriculture. Includes: all the South of England, both the South-East & the South-West. London -centre of everything (called the London City Region). Clothing, furniture-making & jewellery. London's industries: electrical engineering, instrument production, radio engineering, aircraft production, the motor-car industry, London -centre of the service industries, tourism.
OXFORD: educational centre; a large motor works were built in its suburb. CAMBRIDGE: its industries connected with electronics & printing. LUTON: major centre of car production. The Thames valley is an area of concentration of electronic engineering/ microelectronics. The South -major agricultural region of GB.

19GB.
THE MIDLANDS
Situated in the centre of GB between the South region and Lancashire & Yorkshire. leading industrial region. Engineering & finishing of metals. Often is called the Black Country due to its mass industrialization. Famous articles in gold & silver. Producer of consumer goods. Coventry - motor industry. Wolver Hampton on-heavy engineering, tyre production.

Leicester, Nottingham-the knitwear industry, manufacture of knitting machines. Derby-important railway engineering centre: In the south-west -the Potteries, famous for its pottery and ceramics industry. Much of the region under grass. Dairy cattle -in the wetter west, beef cattle in the drier east. Sheep numerous. Principal crops -wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beet. Gardening.
LANCASHIRE

2 major centres: Merseyside (centre- On Liverpool: chemical industry, motor car industry) & Greater Manchester (Manchester-engineering, Blackpoll-popular resort) Due to extensive industrial development agriculture is less developed.

YORKSHIRE Situated to the east of the Pennine mountains. 3 main industrial centers: Sheffield, in the south (produces a wide range of steel goods besides cutlery) ,- Leeds ( manufacture of cloathing, engineering) , Bradford (worsted and woolen manufacture) and Scunthorpe (steel industry) in the west, and the number ports of Hull, Immingham and Grimsby Important ports) . York-centre of tourism. Yorkshire Agriculture: sheep grazing on the rough pastures of the area.

THE NORTH 2 main centers: 1-in the northeast near the rivers Tyne, Wear and Tees (Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Sunderland & Teesside (the chemical industry) ) ; 2-in the north-west in Cumberland (Workington, Whitehaven, Barrow-in-Furness. Most important is the North -East( electrical engineering & engineering connected with construction work for the production of North Sea oil). Industrial development in the Nortn-West is less extensive than in the North East. Abundance of water-building a nuclear power station, which needs plenty of water for cooling. Agriculture is affected by the wet climate Sheep grazing .In the North East -more beef cattle than dairy cattle.

5GB
The last of the invaders to come to Britain were the Normans from France. In 1066 Duke William of Normandy, who claimed the English throne, defeated the English at the battle of Hastings on the 14th of October in 1066 and established his rule in the country as king of England. He is known as William the Conqueror. The Normans settled in the country, and the French language became the official language of the ruling class for the next three centuries. This explains the great number of French words in English. The monarchy which was established by William and his successors was, in general, more effective. The feudal system contributed to the growth of power of the state, and little by little England began to spread its power. Wales was the first to be conquered by England. Before they were conquered by the English in the 13th century the different Welsh tribes were continually fighting one another. In 1282 Prince Llewelyn was killed in battle and the King of England, Edward I started a successful campaign to conquer Wales. Eventually the country was subdued, but the English never felt safe there because of Welsh opposition. This explains why the English built so many castles here of which most famous is Caernarvon located in North Wales. At the same time Edward I of England made his eldest son, his heir, bear the title Prince of Wales in 1301. Though Wales was conquered by England, the Welsh continued to struggle for their independence. At the beginning of the 15th century there was a great rising, but the situation was seriously changed when in 1485 - the English throne passed to Henry VII of the Welsh House of Tudor. In 1536 and 1542 Henry VIII brought Wales under the English parliament through special Acts of Union. Since the 16th century Wales has been governed from London. In today's Government there is a special department and minister for Welsh affairs. Since 1999 Wales formed its own Parliament, the Welsh Assembly, which consists of 60 members. Scotland managed to be independent for quite a long time, though the English tried hard to conquer it. In the 14th century Robert Bruce led the struggle against the English, but he was defeated by the English king Edward I and had to hide on an island between Scotland and Ireland. Here Bruce found shelter in a cave. He was in despair. He had been defeated, his friends were scattered, and the English were strong as ever. As he lay on the cave's hard floor, thinking how difficult it would be to win his struggle, he saw a spider above him spinning its web. Again and again the spider slipped from the web, and again and again it climbed up a line of the web until the whole web was completed. The example with the spider gave Bruce new strength. He managed to organize a new army and defeated the English. However, some years later Edward II, the new English king, decided to attack Robert Bruce in Scotland. He managed to cross the border and reach the Bannock Burn or stream just south of Stirling Castle, which was not taken by the Scots and remained in English hands. Here in the battle of Bannockburn (1314) the English were very seriously defeated, and Scotland continued to be independent for the next three centuries. In 1603 Queen Elizabeth I died and, as she had no children, was succeeded by James Stuart, James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. He was the son of Mary Queen of Scots, cousin of Elizabeth I. With this union England, Wales and Scotland became known as Great Britain. However, Scotland continued to be quite independent in the 17th century. The final unification took place in 1707, when both sides agreed to form a single parliament in London for Great Britain, although Scotland continued to keep its own system of law, education and have an independent church. Today Scotland is part of the United Kingdom. There is a special minister in the Government, the Secretary of State for Scotland. In 1999 Scotland restored its independent Parliament of 129 members. This process which took place in Wales and Scotland is known as devolution, which means granting greater autonomy to the national parts of the United Kingdom.

The main dates in the formation of The British state:

664 – the adoption of Christianity in England contributed to the unification of the country. 829 – the Saxon kingdoms fought one against the other. Wessex became the leading kingdom and united the rest of England in the fights against the Danes. The Greater part of the country was united under the name England. 1282 – Wales actually subdued by the Norman English.

1536, 1542 – Hanry VIII brought Wales under the English Parliament through special acts of union.

1603 – monarshial union of England and Scotland.

1707 – formation of GB.

1169 – Hanry II of England started an invasion of Ireland. A large part of Ireland came under the control of the invadors but there was not much direct control from England during the middle ages. In the 16^th century Henry VIII quarreled with Rome and declared himself head of the Anglican (Protestant) church. Ireland remained catholic. So Henry VIII tried to force Irish catholic to become Anglican. He punished them by taking a lot of their land. This policy was continued by his daughter Elizabeth I. The Northen province of Ulster became the centre of resistance which was crushed by the English in 1607. After this events Ulster became an area of settlement by protesting immigrants from Scotland and England. The “plantation” of Ulster began. 23 new towns were built in Ulster to protect the protestant settlers known as plunters. The Irish catholic were driven from their lands. The population of Ulster became protestant in majority. At the end 18^th century there was a mass risen against the English colonizers which was crushed by the English army. In 1801 a forced union was established with Britain. After a long and bitter struggle the Sourthen part of Ireland became a free state. In 1922 Ulster where the protestians were in majority remained part of the UK. 1998-99 – Devolution (granting of independence to the national parts of UK).

20GB.
SCOTLAND is divided into 3 parts: the Scottish Highlands ,occupies the mountain area in the northern part of the country, the Southern Uplands, covers lower hill area in he south £ the Central Lowlands occupying the wide valley which separates the other two areas.

The Central Lowlands-industrial heart of Scotland. Glasgow-seaport (trade with North America), industrial activity which one of the major industrial centers of Britain with coal, steel, shipbuilding and engineering. Textile and clothing production is important. Food products, furniture & office equipment are manufactured. Edinburgh – is the capital of Scotland; textile, paper manufacture, printing and publishing. Aberdeen -North Sea oil; fishing industry. The natural conditions of Scotland have affected agriculture. The Central Lowlands - suited for farming. Arable, farming is much widespread in the east with barley, oats and wheat as the main cerial crops. In the Southern uplands - sheep raising.

NORTHERN IRELAND is unique Most Ireland has one of the largest concentrations of man-made fibre -production in Western Europe. Textile manufacture -in Belfast. The manufacture of clothing and footwear is developed. Londonderry specializes in the manufacture of shirts. Belfast -the province's main port. Belfast - textile manufacture, shipbuilding, aircraft production, electrical engineering & food processing

11GB Give an account of the main functions of the Parliament outlining the process of passing a bill. Explain the term Devolution and its significance.
The main functions of the Parliament: to pass laws, to provide the means of carrying on the work of Government policy and administration, to debate the most important political issues of the day. Nevertheless, the principal duty is legislation, making laws. In the past Legislation was initiated from both sides of the House: from the government and from the opposition. But in present-day practice almost all bills are brought forward by the Government in power. Bills may be introduced in either House, unless they deal with finance or representation, when they are always introduced in the Commons. The process of passing bills is the same in the HL as in the HC. On introduction, the bill receives a formal 1 Reading. It is not yet printed. The Clerk of the House reads out only the short title, of the bill and the Minister responsible for it names a day of a Second Reading. It is then printed and. published. After a period of time it may be given a 2nd Reading as a result of a debate on its general merits or principles. Then each clause of the bill is considered and voted on.. Then it is formally reported to the House by the Chairman and further, debate takes place. Finally the Bill is submitted for a 3rd Reading. Then, if passed, it is sent to the Lords from the Commons or from C-'s- to L-s. All bills are sent to the Sovereign for Royal Assent, After this the bill becomes a law and is known as an Act of Parliament.

Devolution. The power in Britain was decentralized after the labor government came to power at the 1957. Their program included plans for a parliament in Scotland, assemblies in Hales and H. Ireland and regional development agencies in England.

12GB Discuss the electoral system. Give an evaluation of the "majority electoral system".
The House of Commons is the only chamber in the British Parliament which is elected at General Elections. British subjects and citizens can vote provided they are 18 and over, resident in the UK, registered in the annual register of electors and not subject to any disqualifications. The UK is divided into 659 electoral districts, called constituencies of approximately equal population and each const, elects the member of the HC. No person can be elected except under the name of the party, and there is little chance except as the candidate backed by either the Labor or the Conservative party. In every constituency each of the 2 parties has a local organization, which chooses the candidate, and then helps him to conduct his local campaign, in a British election the candidate who wins the most votes in elected, even if he doesn't get as many as the combined votes of the other candidates. The winner takes it all. This is known as notorious majority electoral system that is often criticized for being unfair to smaller parties that have very little chance to send their candidate to the Commons. It is often argued that the British system of elections is so unfair that it ought to be changed, by the introduction of a form of proportional representation. It aims to give each party a proportion of seats in Parliament corresponding to the proportion of votes it receives at the election. As soon as the results of a general elections are known, it is clear which party will form the government. The leader of the majority party becomes Prime Minister and the new House of Commons meets. The chief officer of the HC is the Speaker. He is elected by the House at the beginning of each parliament. His chief function is to preside over the House in the debate. The Speaker must not belong to any party. G Brown

21 The causes and consequences of the conflicts and divisions in Northern Ireland.
The problem of Northern Ireland is closely connected with religion because the Irish people can be divided into 2 religious groups: Catholic and Protestants. At the same time it as clear that the lighting between these 2 groups is closely connected with the colonial past, in 1169 Henry 2 of England started an invasion of Ireland. Although a large part of Ireland came under the control of the invaders, there wasn't much direct control from England during the middle ages. In the 16th century Henry 6 of England quarreled with Rome and declared himself Head of the Anglican church, which was a protestant church. Ireland remained Catholic, and didn't accept the change. Henry 8 tried to force them to become Anglican. He also punished them by taking most of their land. This policy was continued by Elizabeth I. But the Irish Catholics never gave up their struggle for independence and their rights. At the end of the 18th century there was a mass rising against the English colonizers which was crushed by the English army and in 1801 a forced union was established with Britain. All through the 19th century the "Irish question" remained in the centre of British polities. After a long and bitter struggle the southern part of Ireland finally became a free State in l921. Ulster where the protestants were in majority remained part of the UK. The Irish free State declared itself a Republic in 1949 and is known as the Irish republic of Eire. It is completely independent and its capital is Dublin. Northern Ireland had its own Parliament at Stormont in Belfast and government which was responsible for its province's life. But from the beginning the parliament was in the hands of Protestants while the Catholics didn't have equal rights with the Protestants. In 1969 .conflict started between these 2 groups and so the British government closed the local parliament

and sent in die British army to keep the peace. But there were no peace. On he Catholic side is the Irish Republic Army which wants to achieve a united reland by terrorism and bombings. On the Protestant side there are also secret terrorist organizations.

The Northern Ireland Assembly of 108 members was restored in 1998. Elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly were held in November 2003.However many difficulties still exist' to make this local parliament a workable body because of the confrontation between the parties representing the Protestant and Catholic communities. The Northern Ireland Assembly was established as part of the Belfast Agreement and meets in Parliament Buildings. The Assembly is the prime source of authority for all devolved responsibilities and has full legislative and executive authority. Elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly took place on the 7th March 2007 and the Northern Ireland Assembly was restored on the 8th of May 2007.

1GB
The British Isles are situated on the continental shelf off the north-west coast of Europe and comprise a group of over 5,000 islands. Continental shelf is the zone of shallow water surrounding at present the continent and resembling a shelf above the deep water of the oceans. It’s very important for the economy because of exploitation of oil & natural gas from the continental shelf under the North Sea. Politically the British Isles are divided into two countries — the UK of GB and NI and the southern part of Ireland, or the Irish Republic. The total area of the British Isles is 322,246 sq. km, the U.K is 244,100 sq. km. From South to North, from Land's End to John O'Groats, the island of Great Britain stretches for about 900 km, and is just under 500 km across in, the widest part and 60 km in the narrowest: Due to the numerous bays and inlets no place in Britain is as much as 120 km from the sea coast.

From the European continent the BrI are separated by the English Channel and the North Sea. The English Channel in its widest part in the west is 220 km wide, and in the narrowest (the Strait of Dover) is only 32 km. So the islands have had an easy and mainly profitable contact with mainland Europe. However, the separation of Britain from the continent has had a tremendous impact on the British nation. For centuries the British felt safe and secure protected by the Channel and no foreign army has ever invaded the country since the Norman conquest in the 11^th century. No wonder the British are so different in their behaviour from other Europeans living on the continent, despite all the changes caused by modern technology and transport facilities.

The most important sea routes pass through the English Channel and the North Sea linking Europe with the Americas and other continents. The advantageous geographical position of GB created favourable conditions for the develop­ment of shipping, trade and economy as a whole. The BrI in general, but esp. England as part of the U.K., form one of the most densely peopled areas in the world. With the present population of the U.K. of some 60 million, many problems emerge with land use, road construction and city sprawl.

The BrI, apart from the two largest islands of GB and Ireland, include several other important islands and groups of islands. Off the north­western coast of GB there is a group of islands known as the Hebrides, which are divided into the Inner and Outer Hebrides. They are separated from each other by the Sea of Hebrides and the Little Minch. The main occupation of the peo­ple there is farming and fishing.

Off the northern coast of Scotland separated from GB by the
Pentland Forth are the Orkney Islands which comprise about a hundred islands. Most
of the 20,000 residents are engaged in dairy and poultry farming.

The Shetland Islands are situated about 100 km north of the Orkneys. The population of about 18.000 is engaged in herning-fishing. Apart from fish, the only exports from .the islands are Shetland ponies and face knitted from the wool of local sheep.

In the middle of the Irish Sea lies the Isle of Man. From the Middle Ages the island is administered by its own Manx Parliament and has a population of about 50,000 engaged in farming, fishing and tourist trade.

Another important island in the Irish Sea is Anglesey situated off the north coast of Wales and separated from the latter by the Menai Strait. It is a place of a very famous village with the longest place name in GB. Anglesey contains only 52,000 people, and more of the working population are now engaged in local industry than in fishing and agriculture. This is partly due to an increase in tourism and partly to the intro­duction of several new industries, including the operation of a nuclear power plant at Wylfa.

The Isle of Wight lies in the English Channel. It is diamond-shaped, 40 km from west to east and about half as much from north to south. The Isle of Wight lies across the southern end of Southampton Water, and is separated from the mainland by the Solent. The island forms one of the most important tourist resorts in the country. It is linked to London by ferry and rail services. Lying in the English Channel off the extreme south-western coast of GB is a tiny group of the Isles of Stilly, another resort area.

The Channel Islands lie to the south-west on the French side of the English Channel. They are known to the French as the Isles Normandes. The Channel Islands form an archi­pelago separated by shallow waters from northern France. The total area of the islands is 194 sq. km, but the population is over 130,000. The chief islands of the group are, Jersey and Guernsey. Moreover, the sheep are reputed for their high quality wool sent to the mainland. The coastline of the BrI is indented. Therefore there are many bays and harbours, peninsulas and capes on the coast. Due to its extreme indentity the coastline of GB, despite its relatively modest size, is 8,000 km long. The western coasts of Scotland and Wales are very much indented. This phe­nomenon offers economic advantages, giving the possibility to establish ports in these inlets, which are important to keep ships safe from storms and to give them access deep into the country. The east coast is less lofty and more regular than the west coast, and the coastal lowlands are flooded frequently.

Most of the British ports are situated in the wide estuaries of rivers. Of great importance for port activity are tiaes when nsmg water reaches its maximum mark at high tide of 6m in the lower Thames (London), 8.5m in the Mersey estuary (Liverpool), 12m in the Bristol Channel at Bristol.

Living on islands, and therefore near the sea, the British naturally grew into a nation of sailors. Their love of the sea led them to become navigators and discoverers of new lands in many parts of the globe.

2GB
Though England cannot be considered a very hilly country still it is far from being flat.The most important range of mountains is the Pennine range regarded as the 'backbone of England*. It stretches from the Tyne Valley in the north to the Trent valley in the south — a distance of about 250 km.the highest point Cross Fell (893 m), Being an upland region, the Pennines form a watershed separating the westward- flowing from the east ward-flowing rivers of northern England,also a barrier between the industrial areas of Lancashire and Yorkshire on their opposite.Today the area is used for water storage: reservoirs in the uplands supply water to the industrial towns on each side of the Pennines.

Across the north end of the Pennines there are the grassy Cheviot Hilts. The highest point is the Cheviot (816 m).The Cheviot Hills a natural borderland between England and Scotland. The region is noted for sheep-breeding.

In north-west England the Cumbrian mountain,form a ring round the peak of Helvellyn (950 m). The highest peak of the Cumbrians is Scafell (978 m). The valleys, which separate the various mountains from each other, contain some beautiful lakes (Windermere,Grasmere, Ullswater and others).Lake District, the favourite place of holiday-makers and tourists.This region is sparsely populat­ed and sheep raising is the main occupation of fanners, westerly winds and rainfall is exceptionally high, the wettest part of the British Isles.

The south-west region is essentially an agricultural area because there are many fertile river valleys on the lower land between the moors, both in Cornwall and Devon.

The westernmost point of the English mainland is Land's End, a mass of granite cliffs. The most southerly point of Great Britain is Lizard Point, a mass of serpentine greenish rock.

Wales a coun­try of hills and mountains deeply cut by river valleys. The mountains cover practical­ly all the territory of Wales – the Cambrian mountains. The highest peak,

Snowdo(1,085 m),the whole surrounding area is a National Park noted for its beauty.In the south the Cambrian mountains an important coalfield, on which an industrial area has grown, the most densely populated part of Wales. Two relief divisions may in South Wales: a coastal plain in the south-eastern part around Cardiff, the capital and the Upland areas of the coalfield proper.

Scotland 3 major physical regions: the Highlands, the Central Lowlands and the Southern Uplands. The Highlands to the west of a line from Aberdeen to the mouth of the river Clyde. The mountains are sep­arated into two parts by the long straight depression known as Glen More, running from north-east to south-west. To the south are the Grampian mountains, including the loftiest summits on the British Isles such as Ben Nevis (1,344 m) and Ben Macdhui (1,309 m).

Glen More contains several lakes, including Loch Ness. In the early 19^th century the lochs (lakes) were joined to form the Caledonian Canal which connected two coasts.

The Central Lowlands of Scot­land(the Midland Valley), between the Highlands and the Southern Uplands. The Central Lowlands have the most fertile soil, the most temperate climate, the best harbours, the only supply of coal and the major oil pipelines transport the North Sea oil to the terminals of the region: Edinburgh(the industrial giant), Glasgow(major industries of engineering and ship-building). The region is also a major farming area of the country.

The Southern Uplands extend from the Central Lowlands of Scotland in the north to the Cheviot Hills and the Lake District in the south.(agriculture, sheep pastures of the uplands, farming areas of the lowlands).

In N.I(Ulster) the chief mountains are in the extreme north-east:the Antrim mountains(above 400 metres and are composed of basalt). Off the north coast is Giant's Causeway(a major natural spot of beauty).

The Sperrin mountains (500 m) are located in the central part of N.I, and the Mourne mountains in the extreme south-east.

Lowland Britain to the south of the Pennines, offers a striking contrast in many ways.One of the most extensive plains is in the English Midlands(the Midland Plain), consisting of river valleys and plains interspersed with hills.Here and there you can come across hilly country such as the Cotswolds, the Chiltern Hills, the North and South Downs, Salisbury Plain.Lowland Britain affords best conditions for the development of agriculture, as well as for human settlement.

Wide network of rivers(short in length,but navigable).The mild maritime climate keeps them free of ice throughout the year.

The_ largest river in GB the Severn (350 km) follows from central Wales and flows into the Bristol Channel. The Thames (332_km) and the Trent (274 km) flow into the North_Sea.Flow eastwards to the North Sea: the Ouse,Humber,Tees and Tyne in England, and the Tweed, Forth, Dee and Spey in Scotland.Into the Irish Sea: the Mersey and Eden of England, and the Clyde on which Glasgow stands. The longest river in the BI is the river Shannon (384 km) flowing from north to south in the Republic of Ireland.

The largest lake in GB &the biggest inland loch in Scotland is Loch Lomond, the largest lake of the whole BI is Lough Neagh (381 sq. km) in Northern Ireland.

The weather of the BI is greatly variable. The geographical position of the BI within latitudes 50' to 61°. North is a basic factor in determining the main characteristics of the climate. Britain's cli­mate is dominated by the influence of the sea. It is much milder than that in any other country in the same latitudes. This is due partly to the presence of the North Atlantic Drift(the Gulf Stream), and partly to the fact that north-west Europe lies in a predominantly westerly wind-belt. Marine influences warm the land in winter and cool it in summer. The prevailing winds in the BI are westerlies. They are moist, as a result of their long passage over the warm waters of the North Atlantic.

Relief is the most important factor controlling the distribution of tempera­tures and precipitation in Britain. The actual ts experienced in the hilly and mountainous parts are lower than in the lowlands. The average annual rainfall in_Britain_about 1,100 mm. The mountainous areas of the west and north have far more rainfall than the lowlands of the south and east.

The eastern lowlands are much drier and usually receive little precipitation. Rainfall is fairly well distributed throughout the year, although March to June are the driest months and October to January are the wettest.

In Ireland the the rain-bearing winds have not been deprived of their moisture, much of the Irish plain receives up to 1,200 mm of rainfall per year in the form of steady and prolonged drizzle. Snow is rare owing to the warming effects of the Gulf Stream.

Because of the Gulf Stream and predominantly maritime air masses that reach the British Isles from the west, the range in t is never very great. The annual mean t in England and Wales is about +10 "C, in Scotland and Northern Ireland about +9 *C. July and August are the warmest months of the year, and January and February the coldest. The mean winter t in the north is +3C, the mean summer temper­ature is +12C.The corresponding figures for the south are +5 'C in winter and +16C in summer. The mean January temperature for London is +4 C, and the mean July temperature is +17C. The south has much longer periods of sunshine than the north.

The British economy has become increasingly oriented towards a more sophisticated industry with the heavier coal-based industries of the past losing their former importance. Today the country continues to import rare metals such as manganese, chrome, nickel and others which are neces­sary for the industries.

Coal has been worked in Britain for 700 years. However, with the introduction of new sources of power and fuel the produc­tion of coal has decreased considerably and constitutes at present no more than 100 million tons. Yorkshire and the Midlands pro­duce about 60 per cent of the country's output.

Up to the early 1960s over 99 per cent of Britain’s petroleum requirements were imported. Since then considerable discoveries of crude oil and natural gas have been made in the North_Sea. Offshore oil fields are located off the eastern and northern coasts of Scotland and north-east England. Natural gas usually occurs with petroleum. The North Sea gas from the continental shelf accounts for about 80 per cent of the total natural gas consumption.

Great Britain has no large-scale resources of non-ferrous metals. Nearly all of them are importe

Date: 2015-04-20; view: 1635