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Modification ICM.It has to be noted at this point that Radden and Kövesces (1998, 2005) attempt at specification of general conceptual categories, referred to by the authors as metonymy-producing relationships, within which they identified an impressive number of actual metonymic relations. Thus, for example the Thing-and-Part ICM is supposed to lead to two metonymic variants, namely WHOLE THING FOR A PART OF THE THING, and PART OF A THING FOR THE WHOLE THING. As far as the metonymies applying to events are concerned, the Action ICM includes, among others, AGENT FOR ACTION or INSTRUMENT FOR ACTION metonymic relations. Dirven (1993) lists three types of metonymies, with a distinction based on the dichotomy between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Thus, linear metonymies, which occur in linear linguistic context, i.e. phrases or sentences, rely on the syntagmatic relationship of the metonymic element to the rest of the sentence, against which it is interpreted. As Dirven (1993:6) points out, this type of metonymy does not necessarily result in a shift of meaning. Linear metonymies belong to the so-called low-level metonymies, of which typical examples are: LOCALITY FOR INSTITUTION, INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE, CONTAINER FOR FOOD, PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT, etc. The second type of metonymy is the conjunctive syntagm, which depends on non-linguistic syntagmatic relations, e.g. cultural context. Notice that this type of metonymy entails an obligatory change in meaning. Nevertheless, as Dirven (1993:8) claims, conjunctive syntagm operates on a cluster of contiguous domains, and thus the relationship does not exhibit figurative interpretation. In case of the conjunctive syntagm the shift in meaning is systematic, which is demonstrated evidently in dictionary entries. The inclusive syntagm, which is the third type of metonymy as listed by the author, relies on a chain of inclusion and, like the previous type, it has non-linguistic syntagmatic nature. One of the main features of this type of metonymy is that this metonymy is characterised by different degrees in figurativity. In fact, the varying degree in figurativity is, according to Dirven (1993:15–16), a differentiating feature between metonymy and metaphor. Thus, linear metonymy, which is non-figurative, can be placed on the one end of a scale, whereas the other end of the scale is occupied by metaphor, characterised by complex figurativity. Koch’s (2004) classification of metonymies follows as a corollary of a pragmatic and relevance-theoretic analysis of a number of metonymies, with the figure/ground effect, as well as dychotomies implicature versus explicature, and literalness vs. non-literalness serving as the base. In the diachronic perspective, Koch (2004:14) distinguishes three stages of metonymic semantic change resulting in the following set of metonymies: a) ad hoc metonymies relying on (universal) speech rules, b) conventional metonymies depending on (historical) discourse rules, and c) metonymic polysemies resulting from (historical) language use. In turn, within the ad hoc stage, which is claimed to be crucial for further stages, a distinction is drawn between speaker-induced and hearerinduced metonymies, with two types of speaker-induced metonymies, i.e. referent-oriented, and concept-oriented metonymies. Additionally, the conceptoriented metonymies occur in both soft and intense versions. The hearer-induced metonymies are necessarily concept-oriented. Panther and Thornburg (2005:37), who are clearly proponents of the pragmatic approach to meaning, claim that conceptual metonymies are natural inference schemas that serve as a basis for pragmatic reasoning on the levels of reference, predication and illocution. Consequently, they propose a classification of metonymies into three pragmatic types, i.e. referential, predicational and illocutionary metonymies. In fact, a significant number of metonymic expressions, and thus metonymies, are motivated by speakers’ referential needs (cf. Dirven 1993). In addition to pragmatic types of metonymy, Panther and Thornburg (2005:47–49) distinguish two kinds of coerced metonymies, namely constructionally and lexically coerced metonymies. Moreover, metonymies can be characterised on the basis of semantic relations. According to Bierwiaczonek (2005:14), the metonymic semantic relations rely on conceptual contiguity and probably strong neural links, which in turn lead to their activation. Furthermore, their co-activation is not necessary by definition (cf. Panther, Thornburg 2005). Thus, the taxonomy proposed by Bierwiaczonek (2005) includes: meronymy-based metonymy, antonymy-based metonymy, complementarity-based metonymy, reversives-based metonymy, and synaesthesia-based metonymy. Within the group of meronymy-based metonymy, depending on the holonym and its parts, the author lists four subtypes, namely functional part-based metonymy, segmented part-based metonymy, script-based metonymy, and frame-based metonymy. What is more, Bierwiaczonek (2005:30) adds, even if hesitantly, metaphor-based metonymy to his taxonomy. The author claims that, providing the contiguity is defined in terms of strengths of synaptic connections between the neural circuits underlying concepts, even conceptual metaphor may be given a metonymic interpretation. Conclusion Summing up, the scissors-and-paste overview given in the foregoing pages merely touches upon the basic, background issues relevant for an up-to-date discussion of metonymy, without going into details of particular proposals. The common ground for present studies, clearly distinguishing it from previous treatments, seems to be the cognitive orientation. Nevertheless, due to the mental character and thus mainly intuitive nature of studies, which are frequently based on a limited number of languages, the assumptions made by particular researchers are far from unanimous. Moreover, the above outline is devoted mainly to the theoretical discussion of mental strategies of conceptualisation, whereas the cognitive approach to metonymy provides a useful framework for the study of changes in lexicon, surveying processes resulting from metonymic shift both in the diachronic and synchronic perspective. 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