topic 1 philosophy

Mykola Pirogov was called a scientist of genius even in his lifetime. His career as a researcher, excellent surgeon and clinician was tempestuous. At 18, he graduated from Moscow University; at 22, he became a Doctor of Science; at 26, he was a Professor at Derpt (now Tartu) University, one of the largest in Europe, and at 30, he headed Russia's first field surgery clinic. During his first 30 or so years in surgery, he started a new trend in the study of human anatomy and physiology, based on fundamentally novel methods. His major research works in this field contributed enormously to world science. To this day, Pirogov's methods are among the basic methods in the study and leaching anatomy.

Pirogov's life was dedicated to people. He was a field surgeon during four wars (in the Caucasus in 1847, in the Crimea in 1854, in the Franco-Prussian war to 1870, and in the Russian-Turkish war in 1877), selflessly saving the lives of the wounded in the most difficult of conditions'.

He in fact created a new medical science, field surgery, and suggested new, rational principles for the grouping, distribution and evacuation pf the wounded. His, work, "Fundamentals of Field Surgery" (1864), had soon become a reference book for field surgeons in all countries.

He formulated some of tile most important principles of treating gunshot wounds, fractures, shock and wound infections, and developed the most ingenious methods of performing operations.

He was also the First to apply, on a large scale, plaster of Paris bandages in field conditions (in Sevastopol, during the Crimean war), which was a revolution in field surgery. Almost 90 years later, during the Great Patriotic War, the Pirogov platter of Paris was still widely used-during the heroic defence of Sevastopol, and on all other fronts, helping save the lives, of many thousands of soldiers.

Pirogov had a phenomenal capacity for work, which enabled him to do a great deal in all spheres of surgery. He also developed classical, world-acknowledged methods of operations and treatment in ophthalmology, urology, and oilier fields. Many of those methods are applied even now, and one of them, the so-called Pirogov amputation (a conservative-restorative operation on the extremities), marked the beginning of esteoplasty, giving a powerful impetus to the development of reconstructive surgery.

Genuinely compassionate with the sick and the wounded, Pirogov did all his efforts to find ways of relieving their suffering lie was among the first to realize the importance of general anesthesia and to apply narcosis, doing all he could towards its introduction into surgery. He firmly believed that narcosis not only relieved pain, but created the optimum conditions for keeping up the patient's vital functions during an operation.

Answer the questions:

1. What was Mykola Pirogov? What was his career in his yoth?

2. What new trend did Pirogov start in surgery?

3. What do you know about Pirogov method?

4. What wars did he take part in?

5. What did he do as a field surgeon?

6. What science did he create then?

7. What did he suggest?

8. What principles did he formulate in his work “Fundamentals of Field Surgery”

9. What bandages did Pirogov apply the first?

10. What classical, well-known methods of operations did he divelop?

11. Did Pirogov proclaim disease prevantion?

12. Where did he live in Ukraine?

topic 1 philosophy

Lesson 7 classwork

Thinking Critically Chapter 13 p.151

Cultural Heritage

Which archaeological sites throughout the world have been designated as World Heritage Sites by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)?

READING 1

Afghanistan's Challenge

"All we are breaking are stones."

—Taliban leader Mullah Omar, March 2001, on the destruction of Afghanistan's statues

On my first afternoon in Kabul, I threaded my way through packs of dirty children and decaying concrete high-rises to thank a British aid worker who had helped arrange my journey. The power was out, the cramped apartment was stifling, and she was preoccupied with tracking down jailed, abused, and abandoned women across the country. Her story was harrowing.

Scientific research seemed superfluous in such a place, and worries about ancient sites or looted museums appeared an irrelevant luxury amid such misery. But she was gracious: "We aid people only deal with half the human." The other half—the part that requires culture and beauty—also needs care and attention, she added quietly. That eloquent comment is echoed in a banner across the entrance to the wrecked National Museum that says, "A Nation Can Stay Alive When Its Culture Stays Alive." Printed in English, a language incomprehensible to all but a tiny number here, it is undoubtedly a plea and challenge aimed at affluent visitors.

Many nations responded to that plea at a conference on cultural heritage held in Kabul in May, and some have since come through with money and expertise—notably Germany, Italy, and Japan. Others, such as Greece, have so far not honoured the pledges they made to help. More shocking, other wealthy countries such as the United States have offered little assistance.

Archaeology offers a way to bring Afghanistan back into the scientific mainstream. Foreign missions can assist in training a new generation of Afghan researchers, and, if done smartly, new digs might replace looting as a source of income for impoverished villagers and discourage the illicit antiquities trade—second only to opium smuggling in financial reward. Restoring museums, rebuilding collections, and reinvigorating schools and universities will rekindle vigorous domestic support for archaeology, to ensure that the devastation of Bamiyan is never repeated.

All of this will provide visiting scientists with new data that promise to enrich our understanding of Central Asia, from prehistory to modern times, and its impact on the rest of the world. Globalization was in practice in Afghanistan long before it became a fashionable 21st century term. Here Greek thought met Chinese philosophy, Indian gardens inspired Persian poetry, and four major religions—Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam—were either born or transformed.

Now, in a time of religious and cultural upheavals, the study of a. place that for so long has mingled so much of a human culture— through force, curiosity, trade, and spiritual endeavours—can benefit more than Afghans and a few scholars. Last year's reply by the international community to Mullah Omar's cynical remark and destructive actions is, perhaps, evidence of this truth.

Glossary

affluent: wealthy, prosperous

antiquities: ancient relics, objects

archaeology: the scientific study of material remains of past human life and activities

Bamiyan: city in Afghanistan where the Taliban destroyed ancient statues

cynical: mocking, sarcastic, disparaging

devastation: destruction, ruin, damage,

digs: archaeological excavations

eloquent: expressive, articulate, well-expressed

expertise: skill, knowledge, capability

harrowing: disturbing, distressing

heritage: inheritance, legacy, tradition

illicit: illegal, unlawful, criminal

irrelevant: inappropriate, unrelated

looted: robbed, ransacked

mainstream: normal, typical condition

mingled: blended, merged, joined, united

plea: appeal, request

preoccupied: concerned, worried

rekindle: to renew, to revive, to reawaken

stifling: hot, oppressive, airless

superfluous: unnecessary, not required

upheavals: disturbances, turmoil

Discussion of Reading 1

1. Explain the meaning of the statement by the British aid worker in Kabul: "We aid people only deal with half the human."

2. Which countries came through with money and expertise to help Afghans rebuild their cultural heritage?

3. How does archaeology offer a way to bring Afghanistan back into the scientific mainstream?

4. List the author's examples of globalization in ancient Afghanistan.

5. Who will benefit from archaeological research and study in Afghanistan?

6. Why did the Taliban destroy the ancient Buddhist statues at Bamiyan?

7. Write a one-sentence statement in your own words of the main idea of the article.

READING 2

Leaning Tower Poses a Technical and Political Challenge

JAM—Standing at the base of this strange tower, which rises like some ancient Islamic rocket from a remote valley in central Afghanistan, an angry knot of men argue in three languages over its fate. Unknown to the West until the 1950s, the Minaret of Jam has miraculously survived earthquakes, Genghis Khan, and a flood this spring that nearly toppled the intricately decorated 12th century structure.

Keeping it from collapsing, however, is not easy in a country plagued for 2 decades by poverty, war, and chaos. Crowding together in the relentless August sun, local villagers and aid workers insist that they need roads to bring food and medicines into this impoverished region. But visiting officials from the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Kabul government insist that these roads—which would likely pass close to the minaret in the narrow valley—could easily damage it. They also privately fear that road building will accelerate looting of the area by providing looters [access] to mechanized tools. After long haggling, a temporary compromise is struck: All roadwork must cease within one kilometre of the minaret until a more detailed plan can be worked out.

The complicated negotiations during the UNESCO mission are a microcosm of the wider struggle in Afghanistan to honour and rescue its cultural heritage while reviving the economy—and to resolve differences without resorting to the ubiquitous Kalashnikov assault rifles. "Human relations are very delicate in Afghanistan," explains Andrea Bruno, an Italian engineer and UNESCO consultant who has long experience at Jam.

Just the fact that there are negotiations is a sign of progress here. When Bruno visited in 1999, mujahideen and Taliban forces faced each other across the narrow Hari River, which divides the valley. Leaders from the two sides halted their fighting long enough to share tea with him for 45 minutes, but there was no negotiating. "After tea, they went back to fighting," he recalls. Bruno was there because erosion from the Jam River, which feeds into the Hari, was threatening the minaret, which stands at their confluence. Built late in the 12th century, the ";, minaret soars 65 meters above the valley—taller than NASA's space shuttle. The tower features elaborate lacelike brickwork that characterizes architecture from the Islamic Ghorid empire, which was centred here and reached as far as Delhi. Elaborate Kufic script encircles the tower in aquamarine.

The minaret came to the attention of scholars only in 1957, when a French and Afghan researcher examined the structure. "The sight of this giant decorated tower is just magical," wrote Andre Maricq, the French archaeologist. Its purpose is unknown, but suggestions include a ceremonial gateway to the Ghorid homeland, a victory tower, and part of a mosque long vanished. Or it could mark the site of the legendary city of Firuzkoh, the Ghorid capital, which was destroyed by the Mongols and has never been located. But all remains speculation, as no archaeologist has dug near the minaret.

The erosion and the pronounced lean of the tower alarmed Bruno and UNESCO officials. Once the fighting eased in 2000, UNESCO asked the nonprofit Society for the Preservation of Afghanistan's Cultural Heritage to shore up the banks of the rivers with huge metal baskets, or gabions, filled with stone. They were just in time: On 14 April this year, a flood roared through the valley, carrying tons of debris. "Without the [gabions], the minaret would have been destroyed," says Gulagha Karimi, who heads a local body dedicated to the tower's preservation.

Bruno says that the next step is to examine the minaret's foundations, which lie about 5 meters below the ground, to determine its stability. A geologist did some preliminary work in August, and a UNESCO team accompanied by four Afghan engineers is now at Jam to take exact measurements of the tower's slight lean, which Bruno and others fear has increased in recent years. During the winter, Bruno and an expert on Italy's own leaning tower in Piza, Giorgio Macchi of the University of Pavia, will examine the data before starting work in earnest next April. Once the engineers understand the tower's foundations and exact position, they will propose how to strengthen the fragile minaret.

Meanwhile, the local, provincial, national, and nongovernmental organizations involved must come up with a new road plan, including where to put a bridge to span the Hari River. The prospect of more road building worries Bruno, who notes that widespread looting in the valley had intensified since 1999. Karimi says that the diggers have found wooden doors, necklaces, and dishes buried near the site. He says he saw one necklace that sold for thousands of dollars.

Work on a road up and down the Hari River, as well as the Jam road has made "systematic excavation" of the area by looters possible, Bruno says. "They want to build a road to find stuff," he insists. But if archaeologists can move quickly, Bruno predicts that the results will be dramatic. "Jam will be more important than Bamiyan," the famous Buddhist site east of here. University of Rome archaeologist Giovanni Verardi tentatively hopes to conduct a small excavation near the minaret in April.

And international recognition has finally arrived. UNESCO this summer designated Jam a World Heritage Site, the first in Afghanistan, which confers at least paper protection to the minaret and the area surrounding it. Any new structure built nearby—roads or buildings—must undergo strict review. A short digging campaign and paper rules of distant bureaucracy, however, might do little to prevent looting. "There are so many valuables; you just can't stop it," says Karimi.

One piece of good news for Jam supporters is the backing of Ismael Khan, famed warlord, governor of Heart province and arguably the single most powerful man in Afghanistan. Although Jam technically is not in his province, it is within his control. He told Bruno and other UNESCO officials in a 15-minute audience at his heavily-guarded compound that he was worried about the monument's stability and added that the organization's efforts "are good news for us." In a land where raw power is still an important currency, those words might be worth all of UNESCO's paper.

Glossary

accelerate: to speed up, to hasten

bureaucracy: system of government, official procedure

confluence: converging, coming together

currency: medium of exchange

debris: rubble, rubbish, trash

designated: selected, chose

erosion: wearing away

excavation: digging

fragile: delicate, frail, easily broken

haggling: bargaining, negotiating

impoverished: poor, destitute

intricately: elaborately

Kufic: early Arabic script in which the Koran was written

looters: robbers, plunderers

microcosm: a small example

minaret: tall, slender tower of a mosque

mosque: a building used for public worship by Muslims

mujahideen: Afghan freedom fighters

plagued: overwhelmed, weighed down

preservation: conservation of ancient monuments and artifacts

speculation: conjecture, theory, guesswork

toppled: brought down

ubiquitbus: ever-present, seen everywhere

Discussion of Reading 2

1. When did the West first become aware of the Minaret of Jam?

2. Explain the disagreement between the local villagers and aid workers and officials from UNESCO about the minaret.

3. What temporary compromise was reached?

4. What wider struggle is going on in Afghanistan?

5. Describe the physical appearance of the minaret.

6. What purposes have been suggested for the minaret?

7. What problems with the tower alarmed the Italian engineer Andrea Bruno and UNESCO officials?

8. Explain the steps already taken and future plans to preserve and strengthen the tower.

9. Why does the prospect of road-building worry UNESCO consultant Andrea Bruno?

10. How does the UNESCO designation of Jam as a World Heritage Site protect the minaret?

11. What was Governor Ismael Khan's attitude toward the minaret?

12. Why is the backing of Governor Ismael Khan so important to the preservation of the minaret?

13. Which archaeological sites in Afghanistan or in other countries would you like to visit? Explain your answer.

Vocabulary

Fill in the blanks with the correct words. Use each word only once.

Since preserving historic sites is a way to keep a country's ancient culture and (1) alive, the United Nations Educational,

Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has designated World Heritage Sites around the world. There were 730 of these amazing sites as of December 2002. Even though most countries take pride in having the UNESCO (2), some have seen the sites as ways to strengthen the economies of their countries and have not hesitated to commercialize these archaeological and architectural wonders. The question is how to balance tourism at these breathtaking locations with the need to protect and preserve their existence.

The Great Pyramid at Giza in Egypt, the oldest and most famous World Heritage Site, is the only surviving Wonder of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the world. Construction of this immense geometric shape probably began about 2478 B.C. It was built by Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops) and intended to be used as a royal tomb. The Pyramid, which covers 13 acres, was originally 481 feet high, but now has a height of 451 feet. The ravages of time, heavy tourism, and air pollution have had (3) effects, including (4) of the stones. The Egyptian government has considered various methods that would lessen the environmental damage.

The incredible Machu Picchu, a World Cultural Heritage Site in Peru, was discovered by Yale archaeologist Hiram Bingham in 1911. The granite stone remnants of a 15th-century Incan civilization are situated high in the Andes at an altitude of 8,000 feet. The magical setting for this sacred city evokes feelings of mystery and eternity. Because more than 300,000 tourists come to Machu Picchu every year, there is concern in Peru about erosion of the Inca roads and pollution of the ruins. However, the government of Peru is interested in the financial benefits that tourism provides to an (5) economy, so the government and the (6) have different priorities. Moreover, at one time, a company wanted to build cable cars to replace the buses that now carry tourists up a narrow, twisting road to the top of the mountain where Machu Picchu is located. Fortunately, this plan, which would have destroyed the (7) natural habitat, was not approved.

In Greece, the home of the 2004 Olympics, the Parthenon on the Acropolis had been undergoing restoration. This was a longstanding project in Athens, but because of problems with funding and arguments among government (8), the Parthenon remained covered with scaffolding and surrounded by (9) for ten years. As the date of the Olympics approached, the Greek government suddenly decided to (10) the renovation. Of course, (11) did not want the complex work done in a hurry. If

any damage to the fifth-century B.C. treasure were to occur, it would be a catastrophe. Lena Lambrinou, an architect working on the Parthenon, said: "We can only hope and pray that what we are doing now to protect this great beautiful site will be considered the right thing to have done."

Yemen, a country in the Middle East with a 7,000-year-old history, has countless (12) wonders, but these ancient ruins had

been neglected, and tourism was not encouraged. In fact, the country had not had many visitors due to political (13); however, in May 1990 the Republic, of Yemen became a democracy. Now conservationists have taken on the project of rebuilding the Royal Citadel of Sana'a, which was designated a World Heritage Site in the early 1990s. Yet there are no UNESCO officers in Yemen and little funding, so the country is struggling to begin the preservation of Yemen's vast heritage. According to Marco Livadiotti, a consultant to the government, "There are no rules or conditions to protect Yemen's heritage, no inventories of its monuments, no rules governing what happens to a place once it is given protected status. How can we protect our heritage

when we don't know what there is to protect?"

What Is Your Opinion on This Topic?

Write several paragraphs expressing your point of view on the issues discussed above.

Research Question

How has tourism affected the condition of archaeological sites? Do research on the Internet or in books, newspapers, and magazines to find current information on this topic. Keep the articles you collect in a news file that you can continue to develop.

Investigate the condition of famous archaeological sites such as the Great Pyramids at Giza in Egypt (2575 B.C.) or Machu Picchu (15th century) high in the Andes in Peru.

Consider the following issues:

• importance of site

• reasons for historic preservation

• methods of conservation

• funding for conservation

• effects of tourism on the site

Writing Assignment: Report

A report is a written document that contains an objective and organized presentation of the facts of an investigation. Write a two-page report on a historic site that you have chosen to investigate. Find information on the Internet or in the library about this site.

Use MLA in-text citation style when quoting or paraphrasing information from these sources. In this style, the author's last name and the page number of the citation are given within parentheses after the quoted or paraphrased material: (Smith 17). List your sources at the end of the paper as Works Cited, and alphabetize the sources by the last name of the author. If no author is listed, alphabetize by the first word of the title, not including a, an, or the.

Include the following information in your report:

• name and location of site

• date of construction

• description of site

• number of tourist visits per year

• damage to site

• renovation or rebuilding that has taken place

• organization in charge of preservation of the site

(See Appendix D for an example of a report and Works Cited.)

Oral Presentation

Give an oral presentation to the class in which you discuss the report you did for the Writing Assignment. If you have the technical capability, use the presentation graphics program Microsoft PowerPoint for your presentation.

(See Appendix C, How to Give an Oral Presentation.)

Role Play

After you plan and practice the following role play, perform it for the class.

• Scenario: Local villagers from Jam meet with a UNESCO official, to discuss whether to build a road in the area and how to protect the minaret.

• Setting: The area in front of the minaret of Jam.

• Goal: To arrive at a compromise concerning building a road near Jam and protecting the minaret from looting and other damage.

Thinking about It

In this task, you are called upon to think logically about social, economic, and political issues. The focus changes from a detailed examination of the readings to a broad view of the relevant issues under consideration. Three questions require critical thinking, inference and interpretation, and evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of policies. You can answer the questions in a class discussion or a short essay.

• What kind of historic preservation policies should Afghanistan and other developing countries adopt to ensure the protection of their antiquities?

• What responsibility do wealthy countries have to support historic preservation in the Third World?

• How does the National Trust for Historic Preservation identify and protect historic sites in the United States?

Date: 2014-12-22; view: 1103