The first Kazakh Khans and Kazakh Khanate in the XY-XVI centuries.

The shift of Uzbek authority to Mawarannahr enabled the Kazakhs to concentrate on the establishment of a stable khanate of their own. Buyunduk's successor, Qasim Khan, is generally credited with the creation of a centralized and unified Kazakh khanate. He expanded the territory under Kazakh control to include some of the eastern pasturelands of the Dashti-Qipchak, more of the Syr Darya valley, and all of the Chu River valley. In 1513 he got as far south as Tashkent but was unable to make an all-out attack on the city; winter was approaching and the Kazakh tribes that had summered in the lower Chu valley had to migrate north to find winter grazing. Qasim strengthened the Kazakh hold over the cities of the lower Syr Darya, which was essential for the regulation of trade between the livestock breeders and the sedentary populations to the south. Control of these cities made the Kazakh territory a viable economic system, self-regulating and self-sufficient. Still, the Kazakh economy and Ka­zakh khanate remained in the shadow of the more powerful Shaybani khanate in Mawarannahr. During this period the Kazakh confederation expanded as Qasim wel­comed other Turkish tribes, including Kipchaks from the Nogai group and Naimans and Argyns from the eastern branch of the Chagatais. It was possible for the first time to consider the Kazakhs a people: they were approximately one million strong, spoke the same Turkish language, utilized the same type of livestock breeding, and shared a culture and a form of social organization. Under Qasim, political unity was established as well, for his authority was recognized by the sultans who lived in the Kazakh territory. The Kazakh people at this time was essentially a political union, distinguished solely by territorial and political criteria from the Uzbeks, who came from the same ethnic stock and whose language, economy, and culture were virtually identical to those of the Kazakhs. The Uzbeks, who migrated in the territory of Mawarannahr, recognized the authority of Shaybani and paid him tribute, whereas the Kazakh population, concentrated along the Syr Darya and to the north and east, not only did not recognize Shaybani's authority but instead established a distinct and sometimes rival political structure. From the reign of Qasim Khan on, Uzbeks and Kazakhs lived side by side, but they never again considered them­selves one people.

27) The history of assessment of the Small, Middle and Great Hordes with Russia XVIII-XIX cc.

On September 8,1730, Abu'l Khayr, khan of the Small Horde, sent a letter to Empress Anna Ioannovna requesting to become her subject by asking for citizenship (poddanstvo).⁵ The letter, sent without the knowledge or support of the Kazakh people or the other leading sultans, was from one ruler to another, stating Abu'l Khayr's willingness to swear fealty to Anna Ioannovna; he sent it on to St. Petersburg where it was debated by the College of Foreign Affairs. In early 1731, Anna Ioannovna offered Abu'l Khayr the same terms of citizenship that had previously been accepted by the Bashkir and Volga Kalmyks, who had pledged themselves to serve the empress, accepted that Russia was to specify their hunting grounds, and promised to provide safe passage for Russian caravans and merchants. For Russia's part, the treaties with Abu'l Khayr and those with the khans of the Middle Horde (Semeke in 1732, Ablai in 1740) gave added security to the fortified line along the Irtysh River. This enabled the Russians to think seriously about expanding commerce in the area; they did not, however, view these treaties as providing for the annexation of the steppe. The Small and Middle hordes, though considered to be under Russian protection, were not a part of the empire; all maps from the late eighteenth century show the Russian border north of the Ural and Mias rivers just south of Orsk and Troitsk over Omsk and thence along the Irtysh River to the Altai mountains. Kazakh merchants in the markets of Orenburg, Orsk, and Troitsk were charged the same tariff as other foreign merchants. Tatishchev was particularly interested in expanding trade with the Kazakhs, and he had a market and trading post built on their side of the Ural River. In June 1738 Abu'l Khayr, with his sons, deputies, and allied sultans of the Small and Middle hordes, met with Tatishchev in Orenburg to renew their oath of loyalty to the empress and to promise safe passage to the Russian caravans. Improving the difficult conditions for trade was the main charge given to Tatishchev's successor, Prince V. A. Urussov, named commander of the Oren­burg Expedition in June 1739. He sought to expand Russia's influence to the Middle Horde, and in 1740 he convinced Sultans Abu'l Muhammad and Ablai to swear loyalty to the empress. Urussov's most notable achievement was the expansion and strengthening of the fortified line between Orenburg and Troitsk. During his administration he was able to maintain relatively good relations with Abu'l Khayr and the majority of the Small Horde. Khan of the Middle Dzhuz Semeke was succeeded as khan by his son, Abu'l Muhammad, who shared power with Sultan Ablai for two decades, until he was eclipsed. Abu'l Muham­mad resisted the initial approaches of the Russians, choosing instead to cooper­ate with the Jungar Kalmyks, who gave him the freedom to attack the Bashkirs. In 1740, though, probably because of the re-emergence of a strong and hostile Jungar confederation, both Abu'l Muhammad and Ablai went to Orenburg as the leaders of the Middle Horde promised safe conduct to the Russian caravans and agreed to reduce their attacks on the Volga Kalmyks, who were subjects of the tsarina. Ablai also urged the Russians to exploit the trading potential of Semipalatinsk, sparing the Middle Horde the need of their month-long animal drive to reach Orenburg. The role of Semipalatinsk was expanded in the 1780s to become the capital of the western Siberian province, the territory of the Middle Horde.

Date: 2014-12-22; view: 1671