A) Learn the meaning of the given words.

b) Learn the phrases introducing quotations and sources:

As Hawkins (1998) observed/pointed out/suggested/noted/indicated “…”.

Potter (1981) found/revealed/claimed/stated/ that “…”.

Gunter supports this contention with the following words: “…”.

The idea of … was already expressed by Smalley (1999) in the following terms: “…”.

To use Lyons (2001) expression, “…”.

For example, Jordan (1977) argued that “…”.

The need for…is widely recognized: “…”.

Writing in 1997, Clark commented that “…”.

To quote James: “…”.

Following a research tradition inaugurated by Vygotsky (2000), who proved that “…”.

Thus, Quirk et al. conclude the following ...

II. Analysis

Read the literature review sections (Stage II) taken from different articles. Indicate whether the authors used information prominent or author prominent citations. Indicate if the method of ordering citations used distant to close, chronological, different approaches, or combination of these methods.

“European Journal of Communication”

a) Blumler & McQuail (1968) in Television and Politics: Its Uses and Influences were among the first researchers to study the use of a mass medium as source of political information. Their findings indicated that, when both radio and television were available to British voters, television was preferred as a source of political information.

Nimmo (1970) looking at the same issue, from an American perspective, said that studies "dating back to 1959 indicate that increasing proportions of Americans get most of their news from television rather than from radio, news papers or magazines" (p. 114).

In spite of strong arguments by Schwartz (1974) who indicated that radio provides the bulk of political news to voters, Nimmo (1978), when examin­ing the political media, found that television was still the most widely-used source of political news. Likewise, when examining The Effects of Mass Communication on Political Behavior, Kraus & Davis (1978) con­cluded that "a majority of those who do notice some political news in the printed media, nevertheless, feel that they learn more about what is going on politically from the spoken media [radio and television]" (p. 51).

Additionally, when reviewing The Royal Commission on Newspapers (1981), Siegel (1983) found that between 80 % and 85 % of Canadians indicated that electronic media was the most believable, influential, fair and unbiased media. As well, they felt that electronic media keep them up-to-date on information. He also suggested that although Canadians"continue tobe ardent newspaper readers, their enthusiasm for the electronic media, especially television is tremendous" (p. 244).

Siegel's (1983) findings are consistent with those of Rust, Baja, & Haley (1984) which showed television, followed by magazines and newspapers, were the media used most frequently by voters to obtain political information.

b) Available literature about how television news has been influential in relation to peace processes remains notably thin (Wolfsfeld, 1997, 1998), and in the case of Northern Ireland, studies have centered on the actions of the British rather than the Irish, so emphasizing one side of the story. The studies of Feeney (1997) and Miller and Mclaughlin (1996) are indicative of this work and reveal a picture of news management by the British which served to create a 'primary definition' of events (Hall, 1978) and shape subsequent discussion in ways advantageous to government aims. Feeney refers to how the British manipulated television news in order to gain the public relations initiative over the Irish, and how the government adopted a strategy of reacting rapidly to news interest in order to define representations of key political summits and reports, which weakened the Irish position and strengthened the apparent credibility of the British approach. Miller and Mclaughlin, on the other hand, assess the British government's ability to conduct a damage limitation exercise about secret contacts with the Provisional IRA which were leaked to the press in 1993. The authors identify a particular apathy by journalists in asking questions about inconsistencies in government stories about the contacts, and provide a picture of British control over news which finds parallel with Feeney's account of centralized and well-managed responses to journalistic interest.

“Contemporary Educational Psychology”

Numerous research studies have been conducted to identify factors (e.g.. rewards, motivation, dispositions) that may influence student test performances in non-consequential conditions across compulsory (DeMars, 2000; O'Neil, Sugrue, & Baker, 1996; Wolf, Smith, & Birnbaum, 1995) and post-secondary educational levels (Banta & Pike, 1989: O'Donnell, 1997; Sundre, 1997, 1999; Wolf & Smith, 1995; Wolf, Smith, & DiPaolo, 1996). A construct that has emerged consistently in the literature as a factor that influences test performance in such conditions is examinee motivation.

“Social Problems”

An expanding body of research examines the relationship between television program watching and fear of crime. The potential impact of this relationship has been well noted and includes the generation of cynicism and distrust (Gerbner et al., 1980), the reorganization of the routines of everyday life (Sparks 1992), and the mobilization of punitive sentiments and public policy (Beckett and Sasson 2000). The growing popular support for punitive crime pol­icy, which has become a bi-partisan staple of public life, has been substantially underwritten by what David Garland (2000) calls a new "collective cultural experience of crime" (p. 147). This occurrence is partly informed by media representation of crime in recent years that "has tapped into, then dramatized and reinforced a new public experience [which] increases the salience of crime in everyday life" (Garland 2000, p.158), even for people who may be personally removed from crime. Moreover, as Garland (2000) observes, "media images of... violent 'crack-heads/ and alienated, angry self-destructive 'underclass' " may contribute to fear of crime that "is closely related to fear of strangers. . . especially black males" (p. 153).

When research into television's relationship to popular sentiments such as fear began, George Gerbner and associates argued (1976; 1978; 1980) that television programming contained a relatively homogeneous ideological message that "cultivated" a more or less generic "mean view of the world." Since then, others have argued that the TV/fear relationship may vary substantially by the specific content of television programming and the specific socio-cultural makeup of its viewers.

III. Fill-in

Date: 2016-01-14; view: 649