Figure 1. Ordering of citations

3.2. Language Conventions

When writing a review section it is conventional to use the following tense forms:

1. The Present Perfect tense is used in citations where focus is on the research area of several authors (weak author prominent citations)

Examples.

Gender scholars have provided detailed accounts of the materialist underpinnings of U.S. welfare politics and the ways in which conceptions of motherhood shaped (Brush, 1996; Haney and Pollard, 2003).

Several researchers have studied the relationship between classroom adjustment and mobility (Madsen, 1980; Biggs, 1983; Randall, 1985).

2. The Present Perfect tense is also used in general statements that describe the level of research activity in the area. These statements are often written without citations.

Examples.

Little research has been done on topic development in ESL students’ composition.

An abundance of research on the Progressive Era has established that female reformers drew on materialist vision.

3. The Simple Past tense is used to report the findings of individual studies closely related to your own.

4. In author prominent citations your attitude towards the findings of the researchers affects the complement verb forms:

a) When you believe the findings you are citing are fact, use the present tense in the complement verb (that is the verb in the part of the sentence giving the findings).

Examples.

The founding father of psychology, William James, wrote that happiness is reflected in the ratio of one's accomplishments to one's aspirations.

Sillen (1986) showed that aluminum in seawater is regulated by a thermodynamic balance.

b) When you believe the findings are restricted to the specific study you are citing, use the past tense in the complement verb.

Example.

When research into television's relationship to popular sentiments such as fear began, George Gerbner and associates argued (1976; 1978; 1980) that television programming contained a relatively homogeneous ideological message that "cultivated" a more or less generic "mean view of the world."

5. Finally, if the findings you are citing were seen by the original authors as tentative, or were only suggestions or proposals rather than findings, use tentative verbs for the verb of report and a modal auxiliary with the complement verb.

3.3. Using Borrowed Information Correctly

Observing ethical obligation researchers should acknowledge their debt to predecessors by carefully documenting each source, so that earlier contributions receive appropriate credit. Besides, it is your legal obligation to acknowledge information borrowed from a copyright source.

When earlier contributions are not given appropriate credit in somebody’s writing, we deal with the issue of plagiarism. The word plagiarism derives from the Latin word plagiarius (‘kidnapper’). In modern times the term refers to a form of cheating which has to do with the false assumption of authorship.

The information borrowed from different sources may be written within the paper in three different ways: paraphrase, summary, and quotation. To paraphrase means to use your own words to write someone else’s idea without changing the meaning. To summarize means to write the main idea or ideas of a paragraph, a section, or an article. To quote means to use someone else’s exact words. A paraphrase, a summary, and a quotation each require a citation – a bibliographic abbreviation to help the reader find the source of the information on the reference list- both in the text and in the bibliography. When citing a source for the first time you must mention the author’s name, date of publication and the relevant page number. The author’s name may be given either in the sentence you are writing or in parentheses following the sentence. Here are examples:

The Modern Language Association (MLA) method

Theodore Sizer (1987) explains, “The only way to learn to think well and usefully is by practice. The way a teacher assists this learning is by coaching” (216)

The American Psychological Association (APA) method

One educator explains, “The only way to learn to think well and usefully is by practice. The way a teacher assists this learning is by coaching” (Sizer, 1987, p. 216)

The numbered references method

One educator explains, “The only way to learn to think well and usefully is by practice. The way a teacher assists this learning is by coaching” (6, 216)

The complete reference to the works cited is given at the end of the paper in the required format – in one of the systems of documenting sources illustrated above.

Each method has its strength. The MLA method is the most flexible. The APA method indicates clearly how recent the material is. The numbered method is unobtrusive. The style of documenting sources given in this work is APA. In Appendix 1 you may find additional information of this citation style.

To indicate short quotations in your text, enclose quotation within double quotation marks:

Example.

In this regard, Alan Rubin and Donald Taylor (1988) hypothesized that “sensing television depictions to be unrealistic may contribute to discounting violent television content” (p.127). Similarly, Gunter (1987) suggested that “judgments about real-life crime may be influenced more by reality programs than by functional programs” (p.90).

Longer quotations (usually more than four typed lines) are placed in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and quotation marks are omitted.

Example.

Jordan (1977) also draws attention to the necessity for being careful:

A feature of academic writing is the need to be cautious in one’s claims and statements. In other words, you may indicate your certainty and commitment in varying degrees… (p. 240)

This may be done in various ways…

When you are considering using a quotation it is advisable to keep in mind the following recommendations summed up by Frank (1990):

– Quotations are used for what is said uniquely and cannot be easily restated in your own words.

– Quotations can lend a great deal of authority to your paper if they used sparingly and chosen wisely.

– Quotations are not for ornament, but to make your point more convincing.

– Information that is quoted should be in the exact words of the author.

– If you quote only a phrase within a sentence, the phrase should fit into a grammatical structure of your sentence.

Date: 2016-01-14; view: 870