Features of land degradation resulting from human activities.

Illustrate the Nitrogen cycle as essential atmospheric cycle, define the five processes in the nitrogen cycle

The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle is the set of biogeochemical processes by which nitrogen undergoes chemical reactions, changes form, and moves through difference reservoirs on earth, including living organisms. Nitrogen is required for all organisms to live and grow because it is the essential component of DNA, RNA, and protein. However, most organisms cannot use atmospheric nitrogen, the largest reservoir. The five processes in the nitrogen cycle -- fixation, uptake, mineralization, nitrification, and denitrification -- are all driven by microorganisms. Humans influence the global nitrogen cycle primarily through the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers. Nitrogen is an incredibly versatile element, existing in both inorganic and organic forms as well as many different oxidation states. The movement of nitrogen between the atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere in different forms is described by the nitrogen cycle (Figure 1), one of the major biogeochemical cycles. Similar to the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle consists of various storage pools of nitrogen and processes by which the pools exchange nitrogen (arrows).

2. Consider the problem of transboundary pollution of the hydrosphere on the concrete example.

Transboundary pollution is the pollution that originates in one country but is able to cause damage in another country’s environment, by crossing borders through pathways like water or air. Pollution can be transported across hundreds and even thousands of kilometers. The incredible distances that pollution can spread means that it is not contained within the boundaries of any single nation. This is why it is called ‘Transboundary Pollution’. One of the problems with transboundary pollution is that can carry pollution away from a heavy emitter and deposit it onto a nation whose emissions are relatively low. Another problem with transboundary pollution relates to the quote above. Due to the fact that ‘All things connect’, the heavy pollution that is evident in the developed world also becomes evident in remote areas. For an example of how transboundary pollution becomes visible in a remote area like the Arctic, see the Arctic Haze fact sheet

Describe the mechanism of photochemical smog formation.

Photochemical smog is a unique type of air pollution which is caused by reactions between sunlight and pollutants like hydrocarbons and nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide.

“Wet smog” (London type) - sulfur dioxide and water vapors.

“Dry type” (Los Angeles type )- excess of ozone +dry air, gassy, intense solar radiation.

The photochemical smog is often invisible, it can be extremely harmful, leading to irritations of the respiratory tract and eyes. In regions of the world with high concentrations of photochemical smog, elevated rates of death and respiratory illnesses have been observed.

Features of land degradation resulting from human activities.

’Land degradation’ means reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and

complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands

resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes

arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as:

(i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water;

(ii) deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil;

and

(iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation.

1. Describe the pollution of the hydrosphere with oil and petroleum products.

Oil and petroleum products corresponds to the most harmful chemical pollutants. Each year, more than 10 million tons of oil enters into the ocean due to contaminated surface of the tankers, the leakage of raw materials during the drilling.

Consequences:

Just 1 ton of oil is able to cover 12 m3 of the sea surface.

A film of oil changes all the physico-chemical processes: the increased temperature of the surface layer of water is deteriorating gas exchange, fish leaves, or dies.

Changing hydrobiological conditions in the ocean, affects the balance of oxygen in the atmosphere, and thus directly on the climate.

Soluble components of oil are very toxic.

Insoluble components of the oil precipitate to the bottom of the sea

1. Describe the mechanism of formation of acid rain.

The sulphur dioxide (SO2) combines with oxygen, passes into sulfur trioxide (SO3), and combines with water vapor to form sulfuric acid (H2 SO4). The solutions of sulfuric acid in the form of droplets of mist are kept in the air and with the rain are falling on the ground - acid rain.

1. Describe the most pressing environmental problems of Kazakhstan oil and gas sector.

Development of deep "subsalt" recovery (Karachaganak, Kenkiyak, Zhanazhol, Tengiz, etc.) with a high content of sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfides, disulfides, mercaptans, very sharp impact on the environment and hazardous to the health of population;

• Increased volumes of technical and technological waste: incidental water, associated gases, sludge, waste associated with dehydration, desalting of oil in the preparation, millions of tons of lump sulfur; • Oil production in the protected zone of the Caspian Sea. Drilling operations at sea increases the likelihood of accidents (hydrogen sulfide emissions, oil) and a threat of catastrophic pollution of the sea, the formation of sediments, coastal thickets, as well as poisoning of living organisms over large areas.

1. Describe the mechanism of destruction of the ozone layer

Substances such as CFC and HCFC deplete the ozone layer , which results in an increase in the number of ultraviolet rays which reach the earth. 1)CFC are emitted and reach the ozone layer 2) CFC are broken down by the sun's ultraviolet rays, and chlorine atoms are released into the ozone layer , thus causing a chain resolution of the ozone layer .

1. Illustrate the Oxygen cycle as essential atmospheric cycle, define the five processes in the nitrogen cycle

The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the biosphere (living things), and the lithosphere (Earth's crust).

The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for the modern Earth's atmosphere and life.

The five processes in the nitrogen cycle -- fixation, uptake, mineralization, nitrification, and denitrification -- are all driven by microorganisms.

1. What are the types of pollution of the biosphere? Give a brief description.

Physical pollution:

The source of thermal pollution within the urban area is the underground gas pipelines of industrial objects (140-160 C), heating supply (50-150 C), return headers and communications and communications (35-45 C), etc.

Acoustic/Noise pollution. For a man the noise of 20-30 dB is almost harmless, 80 dB are the permissible limit, 130 dB and more cause pain, and 150 dB - are no longer tolerated.

Electromagnetic pollution. The source can be regarded in high voltage power lines, electrical, antennas and radio stations, broadcasting and more, recently in microwave ovens, computers and cell phones.

Radioactive contamination. The radiation penetrates the living tissues, like tiny bullets. It leaves no external signs and by itself is not felt, but it can destroy the molecules in the cells.

Chemical pollution a change in the chemical properties of the natural environment, resulting in significantly increased amount of any substance in excess of natural background.

Biological pollution it is accidental or due to human activities the penetration of alien plants, animals and microorganisms (bacteriological) into the exploited ecosystem and technological devices.

1. Describe Advanced MSW treatment technologies (AMSWTT)

Advanced MSW treatment technologies (AMSWTT)

AMSWTT also referred to as waste to energy (WTE) technologies require 5 components:

1. Front end MSW pre-processing: is used to prepare MSW for treatment by the AMSWTT and separate any recyclables;

2. Conversion unit (reactor);

3. Gas and residue treatment plant (optional);

4. Energy recovery plant (optional): Energy / chemicals production system includes gas turbine, boiler, internal combustion engines for power production. Alternatively, ethanol or other organic chemicals can be produced;

5. Emissions clean up.

These techniques will be discussed in next lecture more detailed.

1. Illustrate and give explanation to Life-Cycle Asessments, highlight four linked components of LCA.

Life Cycle Assessment:

A systematic set of procedures for compiling and examining the inputs and outputs of materials and energy and the associated environmental impacts directly attributable to the functioning of a product or service system throughout its life cycle.

LCA is a technique for assessing the potential environmental aspects and potential aspects associated with a product (or service), by:

• compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs,
• evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with those inputs and outputs,
• interpreting the results of the inventory and impact phases in relation to the objectives of the study.

There are four linked components of LCA:

1. Goal definition and scoping: identifying the LCA's purpose and the expected products of the study, and determining the boundaries (what is and is not included in the study) and assumptions based upon the goal definition;
2. Life-cycle inventory: quantifying the energy and raw material inputs and environmental releases associated with each stage of production;
3. Impact analysis: assessing the impacts on human health and the environment associated with energy and raw material inputs and environmental releases quantified by the inventory;
4. Improvement analysis: evaluating opportunities to reduce energy, material inputs, or environmental impacts at each stage of the product life-cycle.

1. Describe the procedures of Environmental Impact Assessment

1. Assessing the impact on the environment by individuals and legal entities who obtained a license to perform work and services in the field of environmental protection.

2. Organization and financing of the evaluation of environmental impact provides the client (initiator) of the proposed activity.

3. Individuals and legal entities engaged in the development of impact assessment on the environment, shall be liable to the customer for the accuracy, completeness or quality of the results of the evaluation of environmental impacts in accordance with the contract.

4. Monitoring compliance with the requirements of environmental legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the implementation of impact assessment procedures.

Currently EIA is mandatory and integral part of project documentation. The EIA procedure is used in the preparation and decision-making during the implementation of economic activity. The current instruction sets the EIA requirement to apply this procedure to all, without exception, types of planned economic activity. In practice, for reasons of an economic nature, EIA procedure is performed only for large enterprises where the customer is able to pay for the related work.

Public participation, interests of the population, as part of the procedure, sufficiently are not supported by legislation. There are not set any specific requirements regarding the time limit for the initial information, nor for any of the terms of the EIA procedure as a whole or its individual stages. In particular, it concerns the timing of public participation in this procedure. There is an open question as to whom there should be provided the access to information – to government agency or to proponent of economic activity.

1. Describe the possibilities of use of solar energy in Kazakhstan, technologies of application, construction of wind farms

Kazakhstan has good capacities for use of wind energy, especially in the region of Djungar gates and Chilik corridor, where average annual wind speeds are 7-9 m per s and 5-9 m per s, respectively. Proximity of existing power transmission lines, good correlation of season of winds with increasing demand for electricity ensure conditions for efficient use of these resources.

Kazakhstan is characterised by significant solar energy resources. Duration of sunshine is 2200-3000 hours per year, and energy of solar radiation is 1300-1800 kW per square m a year. This allows to use solar heaters of water and solar batteries, portable photo-electrical systems, in particular in rural areas, at distant pastures.

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electric power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.

A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may be located offshore to take advantage of strong winds blowing over the surface of an ocean or lake.

As a general rule, economic wind generators require windspeed of 10 mph (16 km/h) or greater. An ideal location would have a near constant flow of non-turbulent wind throughout the year, with a minimum likelihood of sudden powerful bursts of wind. An important factor of turbine siting is also access to local demand or transmission capacity.

Usually sites are screened on the basis of a wind atlas, and validated with wind measurements. Meteorological wind data alone is usually not sufficient for accurate siting of a large wind power project. Collection of site specific data for wind speed and direction is crucial to determining site potential^[2][3] in order to finance the project.^[4] Local winds are often monitored for a year or more, and detailed wind maps constructed before wind generators are installed.

The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the reduced influence of drag. The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic near the surface and is affected by topography, surface roughness, and upwind obstacles such as trees or buildings. Typically, the increase of wind speeds with increasing height follows a wind profile power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the expected wind speeds by 10% and the expected power by 34%

1. Describe the particularities of Ecological Expertise, give definitions and explanations.

Date: 2015-12-24; view: 760