Administration of drugs

Chemical analysis

1.A fundamental unit of all matter is an atom. The atom is composed of protons, neutrons and electrons, which move around the nucleus. A chemist determines an atomic number of the element according to the number of protons that the nucleus contains. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the atom of particular element is known as atomic weight.

2.Mendeleev arranged the Periodic Table taken into account atomic number of the chemical element. The elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic number in the Periodic Table. Each element is represented by a symbol consisting of one or two letters. Also Periodic Table is arranged in such a way that elements with similar properties are grouped under each other.

3.A chemical substances are different kinds of matter. There are two kinds of properties: physical (color, taste, odor, touch, density, hardness, solubility and ability to conduct electricity and heat) and chemical. Chemical properties are the changes in composition undergone by a substance when it is subjected to various conditions. The various changes can be physical and chemical. The physical properties tend to be temporary. In a chemical change the composition of the substance is changed and new products are formed; these changes are permanent.

4.Solid: stability, hard solubility, definite volume and shape, viscosity, radioactivity, weight, color, density, odor, conductivity.

Liquid: boiling point, definite volume and possibility change shape, thermal conductive, color, taste, density.

Gases: no definite shape and volume, take the shape of the container or balon, odor, pressure, can be transformed into liquids.

Plasma: the same properties as gases.

5.Boiling of water, melting of ice and distilling of alcohol are examples of physical changes. In all these reactions the chemical compositions of the substances involved remains the same. The only change is in physical form.

6.When gasoline is burned, bread is eaten or plastics are produced from petroleum chemical changes occur. In each case the original atoms are preserved, but the new substanceshas a different chemical composition from the original material. The atoms have been rearranged into new compositions.

7.The phenomenon of radioactivity, fission of Uranium-235 or fission of Hydrogen atoms with the resultant release of atomic energy are examples of nuclear changes. In each case the composition of the nuclei of the atoms changes and one kind of atom is transformed into another.

8.Laboratory Investigations of compounds follow two general techniques: analysis and synthesis. Analysis is breaking down the compound into its constituent elements. Synthesis means building a compound from simpler substances or elements. For example, water is analyzed when an electic current is passed through it, decomposing it into hydrogen and oxygen; it is synthesized when hydrogen gas is burned in the presence of oxygen, forming water.

9.Qualitative and quantitative analysis. Qualitative analysis - detection of the kind of present substances and quantitative analysis - determination of the amount of present substances. Qualitative analysis is chemical, thermal, optical, electrical, mechanical, biochemical. And quantative analysis can be mechanical, thermal, electrical and optical.

10. The qualitative analysis can be chemical by means of precipitation or wet methods, thermal by means of flame tests and blowpipe analysis, optical by means of spectroscopic and crystal structure, electrical by means of electrolysis and high frequency spectra, mechanical by means of microscope analysis and specific gravity, and biochemical by means of microorganisms - yeasts. The quantative analysis can be mechanical by means of gravimetric methods ( weight the amount), volumetric methods ( titrating the amount); thermal by means of combustion and combustion gases absorption; electrical by means of conductometry, mass spectra; and optical by means of colorimetry and fluoroscopy.

Solutions

11.Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances . Most solutions are liquids, but they also can be of gases or solids. For example, the solutions that we encounter in everyday life is tea or coffee with sugar, where sugar is solute and tea or coffee is the solvent.

12.The concentration of the solution is the amount of the substance which has been dissolved by a given quantity of the solvent. The partial removal is called concentrating. The total removal of the solvent is termed evaporating to dryness.

13.Solute is a substance dissolved in another substance. Solvent is a substance that dissolved a solute in resulting a solution. If the solution contains a solid dissolved in a liquid,the liquid is a solvent, and the solid is a solute. If we have 2 liquids the one in smaller amount is the solute.

14.In chemistry a reaction happens when 2 or more molecules interact at change. In different chemical reactions occurring processes such as refining and purification industrial processing, and biological processes.

15.When we shake up a finaly – divided solid with a liquid, the latter becomes dull, or cloudy. The solid particles are here simply suspended in the liquid but not dissolved, and will in the end settle out. Such mixtures are called suspensions.

16.Emulsion is a mixture 2 or more liquids that are normally immiscible. As an example oil and water, the dropleis of oily matter rise slowly to the top. They are lighter than the water in which they are not dissolved but dispersed.

17.The most useful and the commonest solvent is water, in which many inorganic substances dissolve easily. Some organic substances such as fats, paraffin, rubber,petroleum do not dissolve in water. But they dissolve in ether, chloroform or benzene.

18.The obility of one compound to dissolve in another compound is called solubility. The factors affecting the solubility is such temperature.

Chemical compounds

19. The term "acid" means sour, because this chemical compound is characterised by a sour, sharp test. Acids are liquids. They are able to turn litmus from blue to red. They react with bases and some metals to form salts. Solutions of acids have a pH less then seven. The lower is pH the higher is acidity and concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution.

20. Acetic acid can be found in vinegar, formic acid in ant's stings, citric acid in citrus fruits, tartaric acid in grape juice, lactic acid in sour milk, malic acid in green apples, oxalic acid in sour taste and spinach, hydrochloric acid in our stomach provides digestion.

21. In the laboratory you can synthesize such acids: hydrochloric, nitric, sulfuric, phosphoric, carbonis etc.

22. Bases are substances whose properties are chemically opposed to those of acids. Bases often taste bitter, feel slippery, turn litmus from red to blue, turn colorless phenolphtalein to red, contain one or more of the hydroxyl groups, neutralize acids and finally conduct an electric current in water solutions.

23. Salt is a substance that consists of acid balance and metal atoms. You can get salt by using neutralization. Neutralization is the action between acids and bases with the release of salt and water.
24. Acids and bases are corrosive poisons. Specialist, who working with these substances is risks their health. Working with these substances can cause poisoning, intoxication, burns etc.

Organic chemistry

25. Proteins are made of many amino acids linted together. Amino acids are naturally occurring substances. They can be found in plant and animal tissues. We can get some of them with food. The groups are: albumines, globulines, chromoproteines and each other. We can found proteins in blood, skin, hair, muscule fibres etc. Plant and animal food also contains proteins. For example: milk, meat, nuts, cheese, eggs and many other.

26.A chemical composition of carbohydrates consist of carbon atoms and water. In the world are 4 major groups of this substances. There are monosaccharides – pentoses ( ribose), hexoses (glucose, galactose, fructose); disaccharides (maltose, lactose) and polysaccharides (glycogen, inulin, cellulose).

27.The carbohydrates are classified according to the number of carbon atoms in the molecule: monosaccharides – pentoses, hexoses; disaccharides and polysaccharides such as glycogen. Glycogen is a substances similar to starch. Whenever the concentration of glucose in blood becomes low, glycogen is rapidly hydrolyzed into glucose.

28.Lipids or fats are oily substances that dissolved in alcohol, but not dissolve in water. Lipids contain oxygen, hydrogen and carbon. Lipids are important part of living cells. Lipids includes fatty acids, waxes and steroids.

Drugs

29.Drugs are chemical substanceas, which used in medicine for treatment diseases. These substances. These substances can be obtained from different sources. For example from plants, from animals, from chemical substances, which are synthesized in the laboratory.

30.Some terms which describe the action and interaction of drugs in the body. There are: synergism (combination of two drugs, which gives a better effect than the effect of each individual drug), additive action (the combination of two similar drugs is equal to the sum of the effects of each), cumulation (accumulation in humans, animals and plants of various substances as a result of their prolonged use), tolerance (reduced sensitivity to the effects of drugs), idiosyncrasy (abnormal reaction to medication).

31.Pharmacology is a large medical specialty and contains many subdivisions of stud including pharmacodynamics, molecular pharmacology, clinical pharmacology, pharmacogenetics, chemotherapy, toxicology and others. Pharmacodynamics is study of how drugs exert their effects in the body. Molecular pharmacology is the study of the interaction of drugs and cells or subcellular entities. Clinical pharmacology is the study about medication effect on humans. Pharmacogenetics is the study about clinical testing of genetic variation. Chemotherapy is study about drug that can destroying microorganisms, parasites, and cells within the body without destroying the body itself. Toxicology is the study about dangerous chemicals and their dangerous effects on the body.

32.Drug toxicity its poisonous and dangerous effects of some drugs. Idiosyncrasy is an example of an unpredictable type of drug toxicity. Other types of drug toxicity are more predictable and based on the dosage of the drug given. Physicians are trained to be aware of the potential toxic effects of all drugs they prescribe and must be cautions with their use.

33.Side effects are toxic effects, which are results from the use of a drug. Using drugs can cause nausea, vomiting, alopecia, anorexia, headache, stomachache and many other.

34. Contraindications are the factors in the patient’s condition which make the use of drug dangerous. One of the most dangerous toxic complications of drug usage are blood dyscrasias such as aplastic anemia and leukopenia, cataract formation, neuropathy and other.

Administration of drugs

35.I know some methods administration of drugs such as: oral administration, sublingual administration, rectal administration, parenteral administration, inhalation and topical application. A doctor should consider the patient's condition and symptoms. Also physician should consider instruction to the drugs and the time of actions.

36.Oral administration means that the drug is taken by mouth. It passes down into the stomach. Some chemical are absorbed into the bloodstream. Oral administration can’t be used when the patient fells nausea and is vomiting. Sublingual administration means that the drugs is put under the tongue. It is dissolved there.

37.The physician prescribe rectal administration when the patient feels nausea and is vomiting. Suppositories and water solutions are used for rectal administration.

38.Parenteral administration is type of administration in which prescribe different types of injections. In the world are 6 type of injections. There are: subcutaneous (made under the several layers of the skin), intradermal (made into the upper layers of the skin), intramuscular (made into the muscle), intravenous (made into the veins), intrathecal (made into the sheath of membranes which surround the spinal cord and brain) and the last type are intracavitary injections(made into a body cavity).

39.Inhalation help to treat asthma. In this method of administration vapor or gases are taken into the nose or mouth. Aerosols are administrated by inhalation.

40.Topical application is used to heal: wounds, cuts, burns, blisters. The forms of drugs: ointment, lotions, creams, gels, solutions, decoctions.

Chemist’s shop

41.Chemist’s shop is an institution of health service which supplies the population with medicines and medical things. Chemist’s shop are municipal, public, and private.

42.At the chemist’s shop people can buy drugs ready to use, medical herbs and different things fot medical care (hot water bottles, plasters, thermometers and many other).

43. At the chemist’s all medicines are kept in drug cabinets, open shelves and refrigerators. Poisonous, narcotic and psychotropic drugs can be sold by prescription only. These drugs can be dangerous if taken in an overdose.

44.Drugs can classify according to their action. There are: synergism, additive action, cumulation, tolerance and idiosyncrasy.

Date: 2015-12-17; view: 771