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European wars of religion were a series of wars waged in Europe from ca. 1524 to 1648, following the onset of the Protestant Reformation in Western and Northern Europe.

Although sometimes unconnected, all of these wars were strongly influenced by the religious change of the period, and the conflict and rivalry that it produced.

Eighty Years' War (1568–1648),began as a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces against Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands. After the initial stages, Philip II deployed his armies and regained control over most of the rebelling provinces. in 1581 established the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. The war continued in other areas. The war ended in 1648 with the Peace of Münster, when the Dutch Republic was recognised as an independent country.

Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) was a series of wars principally fought in Central Europe, involving most of the countries of Europe.It was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history.Initially, it was fought largely as a religious war between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, although disputes over internal politics and the balance of power within the Empire played a significant part. In this general phase the war became less specifically religious and more a continuation of the Bourbon–Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence, leading in turn to further warfare between France and the Habsburg powers. Devastation of entire regions, denuded by the foraging armies).

Seven Years' War 1754 and 1763 with the main conflict being in the seven year period 1756-1763. It involved most of the great powers of the time and affected Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines. The war was driven by the antagonism between Great Britain and the Bourbon resulting from overlapping interests in their colonial and trade empires, and by the antagonism between the Hohenzollern Dynasty (in Prussia) and Habsburg . The Diplomatic Revolution established an Anglo-Prussian alliance, allied with some smaller German states and later Portugal, as well as an Austro-French camp, allied with Sweden, Saxony and later Spain. The war ended with the peace treaties of Paris and of Hubertusburg in 1763. The war was characterized in Europe by sieges and arson of towns as well as open battles involving extremely heavy losses.

Great Northern War lasted from 1700 to 1721. The Great Northern War was fought between Sweden's Charles XII and a coalition lead by Peter the Great. By the end of the war, Sweden had lost her supremacy as the leading power in the Baltic region and was replaced by Peter the Great's Russia. During the Great Northern War (1700–21), a coalition of numerous states successfully contested Swedish supremacy in northern Central and Eastern Europe.

Russian civil war 1917-1922 was a multi-party war in the former Russian Empire fought between the Bolshevik Red Army and the White Army, the loosely allied anti-Bolshevik forces. Many foreign armies warred against the Red Army, notably the Allied Forces and the pro-German armies.The Red Army defeated the White Armed Forces of South Russia in Ukraine and the army led by Aleksandr Kolchak in Siberia in 1919.



Polish–Soviet War (February 1919 – March 1921) was an armed conflict that pitted Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine against the Second Polish Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic over the control of an area equivalent to today's Ukraine and parts of modern-day Belarus. At some points the war also threatened Poland's existence as an independent state.

 

The Ottoman Empire also historically referred to as the Turkish Empire or Turkey, was a state founded by Turkish tribes under Osman Bey in north-western Anatolia in 1299. With the conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed II in 1453, the Ottoman state was transformed into an empire. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire, controlling much of southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa

 

 

Cardinal Richielieu – chief minister of the French King 1624-1642.While Richelieu was in power, he focused on two main ideas. He wanted to centralize power in France and to adverse the Habsburg dynasty. In 1626 though, he destroyed the position of The Constable of France an ordered castles to be razed. This caused the death of princess, dukes, and more. Because of this tragedy, Richelieu was then one of the most hated men in France.Richelieu French first minister 1624-42.Medieval Europe dominated by universalism - one God, one emperor, one pope .Reformation major change to this universalism – fight for religious freedom and choice .Richelieu not a traditionalist – opposes universalism. His major contribution to international relations the idea of Raison D’etat – state rights above all and this would lead to a balance of power.Richelieu worried about Habsburg dominance.He proposes France above all – over religion – does deals with protestants and muslims against the Catholic Habsburgs. His policies out of place in a Europe divided by religion – very modern, logical, rational. Drawbacks: possible amorality of his stance (against moral laws) leads to future leaders making selfish decisions

General features of 1648-1815 Rise of states – five major powers France, Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain.Fall of states, Spain, United Provinces, Ottoman Empire, Polish-Lithuanian. Improvements in the organisational power of the state – army and nation building. great tradng power, powerful navy and growth of colonies allows Grat Briain to be dominant by 1815. example of a power which falls is the disappearance of Poland. 1648-1815 saw the increasing importance of overseas possesions regarding the balance of power. colonial possessions Britain has in 1763. rise of nationalism in a positive sense. Immense power of the French revolutionary armies – new era – more in the future. 1602 impossibility of fighting wars simply with own resources, raise loans on the international market. forced to take part in the partition of Poland by Russia and Prussia. Austrian lands were spread out across Europe. financial problems lead to dominance by Russia and France by the end of the 18th century. weakening of Poland and the Ottoman Empire, Russia took advantage of this. Primacy of trade during the period. Balance of power maintained in Europe. Ultimate dominance of Britain in the colonies. Rise and fall of major powers

The diplomatic revolution in Europe which occurred in 1756 is a term related to the reversal of longstanding diplomatic treaties which were upheld. The War of the Austrian Succession and then overturned in the Seven Years' War; the shift has also been known as the great change of partners. The principle of the revolution may be thus summarized: Britain and Austria versus France and Prussia became France and Austria versus Britain and Prussia. The war was part of the dignified quadrille which saw a constantly shifting pattern of coalitions throughout the 18th century.

Louis XIV (5 September 1638 – 1 September 1715), known as the Sun King was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of monarchs of major countries in European history. An adherent of the theory of the divine right of kings, which advocates the divine origin of monarchical rule, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from the capital. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts of France and, by compelling many members of the nobility to inhabit his lavish Palace of Versailles, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many members of which had participated in the Fronde rebellion during Louis's minority. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs and consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution.

The Concert of Europe and the move towards World War One – 1815-1914. defeat of universalism in the guise of the Habsburgs in 1648.1815-1914 this period saw the further move towards the development of the Europe which we know today, with the emergence of Italy and Germany. Congress of Vienna establish The balance of power. Otto Van Bismarck was able to create a united Germany. The emergence of Germany onto the world stage in 1871 completely altered the balance of power in Europe. Increased tensions in the colonies, the fact that Germany had risen to be as powerful industrially as the United Kingdom and France, the desire for France to gain revenge on Germany for their victory during the Franco-Prussian war all brought Europe to the brink of a general conflict.

 

Otto Bismarck is the man who accomplished German unification. In politics, Bismarck was a reactionary; he had only contempt for democratic ways in government. He was determined to unite Germany under Prussian leadership, not by speeches and votes, but by "blood and iron" meaning military power. In 1862 King Willian I of Prussia appointed Bismarck as his chief minister. In a short period of nine years, Bismarck united Germany, but in the process he ignored the legislature, viollated the constitution and ruled as a dictator. Bismarck created a Prussian militray machine second to none in order to eliminate Austrian influence on Germany, and to gain supremacy for Prussia. He sought to eliminate Austria as a power in German affairs. Therefore, he schemed to bring about a conflict between Prussia and Austria.Bismarck instigated three wars : The Danish War (1864), the Austro-Prussian War (1866) known as the "Seven Weeks' War", the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71).He was acclaimed by the German people for achieving unification, this was the foremost objective of German nationalism.

industrial revolution - massive increase in productive power was unleashed on the world whole array of things could be done much more quickly. Central role in the end of the 18th beginning of the 19th century. Accelerated production of weapons and materials for war. Industrialisation affected the balance of power in Europe hugely, countries like Japan get in on the act.

Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria Austrian diplomat Metternich of a kind, the Minister of Foreign Affairs in the years 1809-1848, the main organizer of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Led the political reconstruction of Europe after the Napoleonic wars. Known for his extremely conservative views. Industrial revolution changes the balance of power in Europe. Balance of power and counter-revolutionary stability in early part of the period. Rush to empire and aggressive foreign policy by end of period. Rise of Germany to great power status, America, Japan and Italy join the field:Move from Moderacy and consensus to conflict. Period still characterised by peace

The Congress of Vienna ended the Napoleonic Wars and attempted to revert Europe back to a pre-1789 world. The congress restored "legitimate dynasty" like the Bourbons in France and Spain. And tried to recreate the original borders for France and other countries. The ultimate purpose of the congress was to end liberal revolution and it that respect they were unsuccessful. The congress did not attempt to reform the Holy Roman Empire, but created instead aGermanic Confederation. It also did not restore any republics that existed before 1789 like Venice and Holland. The Netherlands was made a kingdom. Also Poland was made a kingdom was administered by the Russian Czar. Ultimately the congress was a failure because it only temporarily stopped liberal nationalism. By 1848 nationalistic revolutions in France were successful and afterwords many nations, like Germany and Italy, formed new governments based on Napoleon III's conservative nationalism. After 1918, all that the Congress attempted to do was ended. Most new European nations were founded around Wilson's liberal nationalism.

The Inter-war Period and the Causes of World War Two: 1919-39. strong critics to the liberal internationalist order of the pre-war era, especially with the rise of Communism and Fascism (Soviet Union, Italy and Germany) – an order which was attacked even more strongly as a result of the Wall Street Crash and the Great depression in the 1930s. At Versailles Germany was punished heavily for their defeat in the war, creation of League of Nations, nation states emerge. Russian Civil war between 1917-23. Post-war era was characterised by economic instability across Europe. circle of debt. USA (becomes the world’s major creditor country). Wall street lack of credit reduces consumption, investment, lack of demand – reduction in production, economic collapse. rise to power of Hitler in Nazi Germany but also the rise of nationalism in countries such as Poland, Romania, Hungary etc. Hitler’s nazi Germany’s throwing off the restrictions imposed on them by the Treaty of Versailles. 1918-24 – peace conferences, conflicts and economic instability across Europe. 1924-29 – prosperity based on US loans. 1929-1936 – Great depression hits Europe/world. 1936-1939 – Economic prosperity returns, descent into war. Europe heavily damaged by the war, material losses and societal decay. Europe highly in debt as a result of the war. Cycle of debt – Europe/Germany repay Britain and France – France pays United States. 1923 Reperations default Germany – France occupies Ruhr. Huge rates of inflation across Europe. Some powers benefit as a result of the war, Japan, Australia, Canada etc. Relative return to prosperity – partly due to rush to rearm. Rapid rearming from Nazi Germany – flout Treaty of Versailles. League of Nations disregarded. Appeasement policy from Britain fails - Hitler pushes Europe towards war.

 

 

Woodrow Wilson was the President of the United States who got the US involved in World War I. A mass of contradictions and mixed messages. He declared he was for peace, but was the President responsible for the most foreign military adventures in the history of the United States. He declared that every nation should have a right to self-determination but when Ho Chi Minh asked for his help, Wilson sent him packing.

Roosevelt realised the importance of the absence of the United States from the League of Nations, he wanted to rectify this. instead of the idea of spheres of influence and the Balance of Power, Roosevelt sought to develop a new world order that would be headed by an international organisation that would be suitable to the United States, he focusing on peace and security, which was to be the United Nations. US did not want to interfere with the sovereignty of states in the region.

‘Percentages agreement’ between Stalin and Churchill. As part of this agreement Britain and USSR decided to divide influence in certain countries in Europe. Britain accepted that Russia would have 90% influence in Romania and 75% in Bulgaria in exchange for Britain receiving 90% influence in Greece. (This was however unofficial)!

Firstly at Yalta the United States was able to get acceptance for a move towards the United Nations – the Big powers accepted the proposal of FDR regarding the voting procedures of the organisation and a charter for the organisation based on peace and security. It declared the Allied intention to “destroy German militarism and Nazism and to ensure that Germany will never again be able to disturb the peace of the world”; to “bring all war criminals to just and swift punishment”; and to “exact reparation in kind for the destruction wrought by the Germans.” Reference was made to a decision to divide Germany into three zones of occupation and to govern it through a central control commission, situated in Berlin; however, provision was made to invite France “to take over a zone of occupation, and to participate the control commission.” Provision was made for a reparations commission to work in Moscow. The declaration also announced that a “conference of United Nations” would be held in San Francisco in April 1945. It confirmed the possession of eastern Poland by the USSR, declaring that by way of compensation, “Poland must receive substantial accessions of territory in the north and west,” that is, at the expense of Germany.

The Potsdam conference - The third major conference of the Big Three after Tehran and Yalta – was held in Potsdam in August 1945. 1: Setting up of a tribunal to try senior Nazi leaders for war crimes at the Nuremberg Trials. Democratization of Germany, and the elimination of all Nazi influence in Germany, known as de-Nazification. East Prussia, including the city of Konigsberg, to become part of Russia; Polish border to be moved about 200 miles west to the Oder-Neisse line. There were lots of agreements covering other things as well

Winston Churchill Soldier, politician and finally prime minister, Winston Churchill was one of Britain's greatest 20th-century heroes. He is particularly remembered for his indomitable spirit while leading Great Britain to victory in World War II. Churchill fought with the British Army in India and Sudan, and as a journalist was captured in South Africa (where his dispatches from the Boer War first brought him to public prominence). He became a member of Parliament in 1900 and remained an MP for over 64 years. His early topsy-turvy political career earned him many enemies, but his stirring speeches, bulldog tenacity and refusal to make peace with Adolf Hitler made him the popular choice to lead England through World War II. When Britain and its allies prevailed in 1945, Churchill's place in history was assured. (Ironically, he lost the prime ministership two months after Germany's surrender, when the opposition Labor Party took majority control of Parliament.)

Begin of Cold war 1945-46: the Cold War developed from different approaches to the nature of the post-war world. Initial aims of the great powers to work together. But clashes over spheres of interest, ideology and moral principles in foreign policy drives them apart. US and UK always more natural partners but brought together by events of 1945-7. Co-operation in 1945 moves towards confrontation and securing of vital interests 1946-49. Different spheres of influence, different ideological concerns (moralism of US foreign policy). Others have a much less moral policy. Ideology becomes crucial in Europe for the first time since the thirty years war.

The Truman Doctrine is the idea that the United States would intervene, on a global basis, to prevent Communism from spreading. The central idea was called "containment" - containing the Communists in Eastern Europe (and later China). It started in Greece and Turkey, with the US providing military aid to forced fighting the Communists in 1947. It continued with the Berlin airlift when the Russians tried to block access to the city of Berlin in 1948. The Korean War, in which the US fought Communist China and North Korea was another example, as was the Vietnam War.

Marshall Plan On April 3, 1948, President Truman signed the Economic Recovery Act of 1948. It became known as the Marshall Plan, named for Secretary of State George Marshall, who in 1947 proposed that the United States provide economic assistance to restore the economic infrastructure of postwar Europe.When World War II ended in 1945, Europe lay in ruins: its cities were shattered; its economies were devastated; its people faced famine. In the two years after the war, the Soviet Union’s control of Eastern Europe and the vulnerability of Western European countries to Soviet expansionism heightened the sense of crisis. On December 19, 1947, President Harry Truman sent Congress a message that followed Marshall’s ideas to provide economic aid to Europe. Congress overwhelmingly passed the Economic Cooperation Act of 1948, and on April 3, 1948, President Truman signed the act that became known as the Marshall Plan. For the United States, the Marshall Plan provided markets for American goods, created reliable trading partners, and supported the development of stable democratic governments in Western Europe. Congress’s approval of the Marshall Plan signaled an extension of the bipartisanship of World War II into the postwar years.

Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov was a Soviet career officer in the Red Army who, in the course of World War II, played a pivotal role in leading the Red Army drive through much of Eastern Europe to liberate the Soviet Union and other nations from the occupation of the Axis Powers and ultimately, to conquer the capital of Germany itself, Berlin. He is the most decorated general officer in the history of the Soviet Union and Russia. His combat achievements became valuable heritages in humanity's military knowledge, exerted great influence on both the Soviet and the whole world's military theory.

Containment = 'a principle of US foreign policy that sought to prevent the expansion of Communist power

Rollback = 'was an American foreign policy doctrine during the Cold War, which advocated the use of U.S. military power to drive back the Soviet Union's influence wherever it appeared.' rollback where the US attempted to bring about the downfall of the Soviet Union through covert operations.

Korean war - Korea had been divided along the 38th parallel as a result of the peace arrangements at the end of WWII. USSR temporarily occupied the North of the country and America occupied the South People’s government at first in the North – different political parties allowed, 1946 non-communist purge in the North. North Korean leader Kim Il Sung wanted to unite Korea, South also sought the unification of Korea based on Capitalism and democracy. Both sides afraid of the use of force – what would happen? Stalin holds back until January 1950 for Kim Il Sung’s attack. Stalin’s rejection of Kim il Sung’s 1949 requests for his approval of an attack on the South until January 1950. Reasons for the agreement. the growing threat of escalation including the use of nuclear weapons. The death of Stalin and China wanting to end the war. Conclusion China prevents defeat, stands up to the US .US supports its position as a defender of liberty, but thousands of deaths in a non-important geopolitical area. Soviets – big losers, Korea militarised, allies rearm, mistrust rises with China/West. General – globalisation of the Cold War.

N Krushchev was the leader of the Soviet Union from the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953.He was the leader of the Soviet Union during the Cuban Missile Crisis in the early 1960s, which was possibly the closest a world has ever come to real nuclear warfare. His counterpart in the United States during that time period was J F Kennedy. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964. Khrushchev was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union, for backing the progress of the early Soviet space program, and for several relatively liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy. During his term as Premier he presided over a period of the Cold War in which the USA and the USSR tested each others resolve by a tit for tat foreign policy of "brinkmanship." Each side pushed each other to the edge of war to see who would blink first. It calumniated in the Cuban Missile Crises in which both sides almost failed to blink at all. It was also a period when the USSR was arming and encouraging North Vietnam to launch its War of National Liberation against South Vietnam which resulted in the shooting war we call the Vietnam War.

Dwight D. Eisenhower He was the Supreme Allied Commander for the European Theater in WW2. Later he was the first Supreme Commander of NATO Forces in Europe. After a year in that that job, he left to be President of the United States. He ran as a Republican as you know and he did this based on the fact that he felt it was important to reinstall the two party system to American Politics.

 

 

John Kennedy was the 35th President of the United States. Kennedy represented Massachusetts' 11th congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953 as a Democrat. Thereafter, he served in the U.S. Senate from 1953 until 1960. Events during his presidency included the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the building of the Berlin Wall, the Space Race, the African-American Civil Rights Movement, and early stages of the Vietnam War. Therein, Kennedy increased the number of military advisers, special operation forces, and helicopters in an effort to curb the spread of communism in South East Asia.The Kennedy administration adopted the policy of the Strategic Hamlet Program which was implemented by the South Vietnamese government. It involved certain forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese from the northern and southern communist insurgents.

Ronald Wilson Reagan) was the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989). Before that, he was the 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975), and a radio, film and television actor.Born in Tampico, Illinois, and raised in Dixon, Reagan was educated at Eureka College, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics and sociology. After graduating, Reagan moved first to Iowa to work as a radio broadcaster and then, in 1937, to Los Angeles where he began a career as an actor, first in films and later television. Some of his most notable films include Knute Rockne, All American (1940), Kings Row (1942), and Bedtime for Bonzo (1951). Reagan served as President of the Screen Actors Guild and later as a spokesman for General Electric (GE); his start in politics occurred during his work for GE. Originally a member of the Democratic Party, his positions began shifting rightward in the 1950s, and he switched to the Republican Party in 1962.

Mikhail Gorbachev, in full Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (born March 2, 1931, Privolye, Stavropol kray, Russia, U.S.S.R.), Soviet official, the general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from 1985 to 1991 and president of the Soviet Union in 1990–91. His efforts to democratize his country’s political system and decentralize its economy led to the downfall of communism and the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. In part because he ended the Soviet Union’s postwar domination of eastern Europe, Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1990.

The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) is a 1987 agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union. Signed in Washington, D.C. by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev on December 8, 1987, it was ratified by the United States Senate on May 27, 1988 and came into force on June 1 of that year. The treaty is formally titled The Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Elimination of Their Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles.The treaty eliminated nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with intermediate ranges, defined as between 500-5,500 km (300-3,400 miles).

Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989.On the night of November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall--the most potent symbol of the cold-war division of Europe--came down. Earlier that day, the Communist authorities of the German Democratic Republic had announced the removal of travel restrictions to democratic West Berlin. Thousands of East Germans streamed into the West, and in the course of the night, celebrants on both sides of the wall began to tear it down.


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