Writing paper: P.M., R.B. Revising paper: both authors
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge our mentors and students who have taught us everything we know and inspired us to learn even more.
Declaration of interest
In the last 5 yr P.M. has received an honorarium from Pulsion Medical, manufacture of the PiCCO haemodynamic device for a lecture delivered at an international Critical Care Symposium (about 1000 GBP) and an honorarium from Cheetah Medical, manufacturer of the NiCOM haemodynamic device for a lecture delivered at medical grand rounds (about 1500 GBP). R.B. has no conflicts of interest to declare.
References
1. Cosnett JE. The origins of intravenous fluid therapy. Lancet
1989; 1: 76871
2. MacGillivray N. Dr Latta of Leith: pioneer in the treatment of cholera by intravenous saline infusion. J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2006; 36: 805
3. Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early goal-directed ther- apy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 136877
4. Jones AE, Shapiro NI, Trzeciak S, Arnold RC, Claremont HA, Kline JA. Lactate clearance vs central venous oxygen satur- ation as goals of early sepsis therapy: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2010; 303: 73946
5. Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, et al. Surviving Sepsis Cam- paign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and sep- tic shock. Crit Care Med 2004; 32: 85873
6. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, et al. Surviving sepsis Cam- paign: International guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. 2008. Crit Care Med 2008; 36: 296327
7. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Se- vere Sepsis and Septic Shock. 2012. Crit Care Med 2013; 41: 580637
8. Yealy DM, Kellum JA, Huang DT, et al. A Randomized trial of protocol-based care for early septic shock. N Engl J Med 2014; 370: 168393
9. Peake SL, Delasney A, Bailey M, et al. Goal-directed resuscita- tion for patients with Early Septic Shock. N Engl J Med 2014; 371: 1496506
10. Mouncey PR, Osborn TM, Power S, et al. Trial of early, goal- directed resuscitation for septic shock. N Engl J Med 2015; 372: 130111
11. Angus DC, Barnato AE, Bell D, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of early goal-directed therapy for septic shock: the ARISE, ProCESS and ProMISe investigators. Intensive Care Med 2015; 41: 154960
12. Funk DJ, Jacobsohn E, Kumar A. The role of venous return in critical illness and shock-part I: physiology. Crit Care Med 2013; 41: 2507
13. Guyton AC. Determination of cardiac output by equating venous return curves with cardiac response curves. Physiol Rev 1955; 35: 1239
14. Gelman S. Venous function and central venous pressure: a physiologic story. Anesthesiol 2008; 108: 73548
15. Peters J, Mack GW, Lister G. The importance of the peripheral circulation in critical illnesses. Intensive Care Med 2001; 27: 144658
16. Applegate RA, Johnston WE, Vinten-Johansen J, Klopfenstein HS, Little WC. Restraining effect of intact pericardium during acute volume loading. Am J Physiol 1992; 262: H172533
17. Tyson GS, Maier GW, Olsen CO, Davis JW, Rankin JS. Pericar- dial influences on ventricular filling in the conscious dog. An analysis based on pericardial pressure. Circ Res 1984; 54: 17384
18. Fragata J, Areias JC. Effects of gradual volume loading on left ventricular diastolic function in dogs: implications for the optimisation of cardiac output. Heart 1996; 75: 3527
19. Vellinga NA, Ince C, Boerma EC. Elevated central venous pressure is associated with impairment of microcirculatory blood flow in sepsis. BMC Anesthesiol 2013; 13: 17
20. Prowle JR, Echeverri JE, Ligabo EV, Ronco C, Bellomo R. Fluid balance and acute kidney injury. Nat Rev Nephrol 2010; 6: 10715
21. Starling EH. The Linacre Lecture on the Law of the Heart, Given at Cambridge, 1915. London: Longmans, 1918; 27
22. Marik PE. The physiology of volume resuscitation. Curr Anesthesiol Rep 2014; 4: 3539
23. Cecconi M, Aya HD, Geisen M, et al. Changes in the mean sys- temic filling pressure during a fluid challenge in postsurgical intensive care patients. Intensive Care Med 2013; 39: 1299305
24. Woodcock TE, Woodcock TM. Revised Starling equation and the glycocalyx model of transvascular fluid exchange: an improved paradigm for prescribing intravenous fluid ther- apy. Br J Anaesth 2012; 108: 38494
25. Reitsma S, Slaaf DW, Vink H, van Zandvoort MA, oude Egbrink MG. The endothelial glycocalyx: composition, func- tions, and visualization. Pflugers Archiv - Eur J Physiol 2007; 454: 34559
26. Levick JR, Michel CC. Microvascular fluid exchange and the revised Starling principle. Cardiovasc Res 2010; 87: 198210
27. Jacob M, Chappell D, Rehm M. The third spacefact or fic- tion? Best Practice & Research. Clinical Anaesthesiology. 2009; 23: 14557
28. Ueda S, Nishio K, Akai Y, et al. Prognostic value of increased plasma levels of brain natriuretic peptide in patients with septic shock. Shock 2006; 26: 1349
29. Zhang Z, Zhang Z, Xue Y, Xu X, Ni H. Prognostic value of B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and its potential role in guiding fluid therapy in critically ill septic patients. Scand J Trauma Resus Emerg Med 2012; 20: 86
30. Bruegger D, Jacob M, Rehm M, et al. Atrial natriuretic peptide induces shedding of endothelial glycocalyx in coronary vascular bed of guinea pig hearts. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2005; 289: H199399
31. Berg S, Golster M, Lisander B. Albumin extravasation and tis- sue washout of hyaluronan after plasma volume expansion with crystalloid or hypooncotic colloid solutions. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2002; 46: 16672
32. Bruegger D, Schwartz L, Chappell D, et al. Release of atrial natriuretic peptide precedes shedding of the endothelial glycocalyx equally in patients undergoing on- and off- pump coronary artery bypass surgery. Basic Res Cardiol 2011; 106: 111121
34. Anderson WD, Kulik TJ, Mayer JE, Anderson WD, Kulik TJ, Mayer JE. Inhibition of contraction of isolated lymphatic ducts by atrial natriuretic peptide. Am J Physiol 1991; 260: R6104
35. Ohhashi T, Watanabe N, Kawai Y, Ohhashi T, Watanabe N, Kawai Y. Effects of atrial natriuretic peptide on isolated bo- vine mesenteric lymph vessels. Am J Physiol 1990; 259: H427
36. Landry DW, Oliver JA. Pathogenesis of vasodilatory shock. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 58895
37. Ait-Oufella H, Maury E, Lehoux S, Guidet B, Offenstadt G. The endothelium: physiological functions and role in microcir- culatory failure during severe sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2010; 36: 128698
38. Goldenberg NM, Steinberg BE, Slutsky AS, Lee WL. Broken barriers: a new take on sepsis pathogenesis. Sci Translation Med 2011; 3: 88ps25
39. Hernandez G, Bruhn A, Ince C. Microcirculation in sepsis: new perspectives. Curr Vasc Pharm 2013; 11: 1619
40. De Backer D, Creteur J, Preiser JC, Dubois MJ, Vincent JL. Microvascular blood flow is altered in patients with sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166: 98104
41. Trzeciak S, Rivers E. Clinical manifestations of disordered microcirculatory perfusion in severe sepsis. Crit Care 2005; 9 (suppl 4): S206
42. Parker MM, Shelhamer JH, Bacharach SL, et al. Profound but reversible myocardial depression in patients with septic shock. Ann Intern Med 1984; 100: 48390
43. Sanfilippo F, Corredor C, Fletcher N, et al. Diastolic dysfunc- tion and mortality in septic patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med 2015; 41: 100413
44. Landesberg G, Gilon D, Meroz Y, et al. Diastolic dysfunction and mortality in severe sepsis and septic shock. Eur Heart J 2012; 33: 895903
45. Brown SM, Pittman JE, Hirshberg EL, et al. Diastolic dysfunc- tion and mortality in early severe sepsis and septic shock: a prospective, observational echocardiography study. Crit Ultrasound J 2012; 4:8
46. Cheitlin MD. Cardiovascular physiology-changes with aging. Am J Geriatr Cardiol 2003; 12: 913
47. Pieske B, Wachter R. Impact of diabetes and hypertension on the heart. Curr Opin Cardiol 2008; 23: 3409
48. Russo C, Jin Z, Homma S, et al. Effect of obesity and over- weight on left ventricular diastolic function: a community- based study in an elderly cohort. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011; 57: 136874
49. Ognibene FP, Parker MM, Natanson C, Shelhamer JH, Parrillo JE. Depressed left ventricular performance: response to volume infusion in patients with sepsis and septic shock. Chest 1988; 93: 90310
50. Marik PE, Monnet X, Teboul JL. Hemodynamic parameters to guide fluid therapy. Ann Crit Care 2011; 1:1
51. Marik PE, Lemson J. Fluid responsiveness: An evolution of our understanding. Br J Anaesth 2014; 112: 6202
52. Prowle JR, Kirwan CJ, Bellomo R. Fluid management for the prevention and attenuation of acute kidney injury. Nat Rev Nephrol 2014; 10: 3747
53. Hilton AK, Bellomo R. A critique of fluid bolus resuscitation in severe sepsis. Crit Care 2012; 16: 302
54. Marik PE, Cavallazzi R. Does the Central Venous Pressure (CVP) predict fluid responsiveness: An update meta-analysis and a plea for some common sense. Crit Care Med 2013; 41: 177481
55. Biais M, Ehrmann S, Mari A, et al. Clinical relevance of pulse pressure variations for predicting fluid responsiveness in mechanically ventilated intensive care unit patients: the grey zone approach. Crit Care 2014; 18: 587
56. Cannesson M, Le MY, Hofer CK, et al. Assessing the diagnos- tic accuracy of pulse pressure variations for the prediction of
fluid responsiveness: a gray zone approach. Anesthesiol
2011; 115: 23141
57. Vincent JL, Pelosi P, Pearse R, et al. Perioperative cardiovascu- lar monitoring of high-risk patients: a consensus of 12. Crit Care 2015; 19: 224
58. Wilms H, Mittal A, Haydock MD, van den Heever M, Devaud M, Windsor JA. A systematic review of goal directed fluid therapy: Rating of evidence for goals and monitoring methods. J Crit Care 2014; 29: 2049
59. Hollenberg SM, Ahrens TS, Annane D, et al. Practice para- meters for hemodynamic support of sepsis in adult pa- tients: 2004 update. Crit Care Med 2004; 32: 192848
60. Smith B, Phillips R, Madigan V, West M. Decreased mortality, morbidity and emergency transport in septic shock: A new protocol based on advanced noninvasive haemodynamics and early antibiotics [abstract]. Crit Care Med 2013; 40: 117
61. Mallat J, Meddour M, Durville E, et al. Mini-fluid challenge in patients with low-volume mechanical ventilation: the de- crease in pulse pressure and stroke volume variations accur- ately predicts fluid responsiveness. Br J Anaesth 2015; 115: 44956
62. Lammi MR, Aiello B, Burg GT, et al. Response to fluid boluses in the fluid and catheter treatment trial. Chest Advance Ac- cess published on May 28, 2015. doi: 10.1378/chest.15-0445
63. Chowdhury AH, Cox EF, Francis S, Lobo DN. A randomized, controlled, double-blind crossover study on the effects of 2-L infusions of 0.9% saline and plasma-lyte 148 on renal blood flow velocity and renal cortical tissue perfusion in healthy volunteers. Ann Surg 2012; 256: 1824
64. Sanchez M, Jimenez-Lendinez M, Cidoncha M, et al. Com- parison of fluid compartments and fluid responsiveness in septic and non-septic patients. Anaesth Intensive Care 2011; 39: 10229
65. Bark BP, Oberg CM, Grande PO. Plasma volume expansion by 0.9% NaCl during sepsis/systemic inflammatory response syndrome, after hemorrhage, and during a normal state. Shock 2013; 40: 5964
66. Nunes T, Ladeira R, Bafi A, de Azevedo L, Machado F, Freitas F. Duration of hemodynamic effects of crystalloids in patients with circulatory shock after initial resuscitation. Ann Intensive Care 2014; 4: 25
67. Glassford NJ, Eastwood GM, Bellomo R. Physiological changes after fluid bolus therapy in sepsis: a systematic re- view of contemporary data. Crit Care 2014; 18: 2557
68. Wioedemann HP, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, et al. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 256475
69. Monge-Garcia MI, Gonzalez PG, Romero MG, et al. Effects of fluid administration on arterial load in septic shock patients. Intensive Care Med 2015; 41: 124755
70. Pierrakos C, Velissaris D, Scolletta S, Heenen S, De BD, Vincent JL. Can changes in arterial pressure be used to de- tect changes in cardiac index during fluid challenge in pa- tients with septic shock? Intensive Care Med 2012; 38: 4228
71. Monnet X, Chemla D, Osman D, et al. Measuring aortic diam- eter improves accuracy of esophageal Doppler in assessing fluid responsiveness. Crit Care Med 2007; 35: 47782
73. Marik PE. Iatrogenic salt water drowning and the hazards of a high central venous pressure. Ann Intensive Care 2014; 4: 21
74. Hayes MA, Timmins AC, Yau E, Palazzo M, Hinds CJ, Watson D. Elevation of systemic oxygen delivery in the
treatment of critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 171722
75. Monnet X, Teboul JL. Passive leg raising: five rules, not a drop of fluid!. Crit Care 2015; 19: 18
76. Marik PE. Fluid therapy in 2015 and beyond: The mini-fluid challenge and mini-fluid bolus approach. Br J Anaesth 2015; 115: 3479
77. Monnet X, Teboul JL. Passive leg raising. Intensive Care Med
2008; 34: 65963
78. Teboul JL, Monnet X. Prediction of volume responsiveness in critically ill patients with spontaneous breathing activity. Curr Opin Crit Care 2008; 14: 3349
79. Boulain T, Achard JM, Teboul JL, Richard C, Perrotin D, Ginies G. Changes in BP induced by passive leg raising pre- dict response to fluid loading in critically ill patients. Chest 2002; 121: 124552
80. Monnet X, Rienzo M, Osman D, et al. Passive leg raising pre- dicts fluid responsiveness in the critically ill. Crit Care Med 2006; 34: 14027
81. Cavallaro F, Sandroni C, Marano C, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of passive leg raising for prediction of fluid responsiveness in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies. Intensive Care Med 2010; 36: 147583
82. Wetterslev M, Haase N, Johansen RR, Perner A. Predicting fluid responsiveness with transthoracic echocardiography is not yet evidence based. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2013; 57: 6927
83. Muller L, Bobbia X, Toumi M, et al. Respiratory variations of inferior vena cava diameter predict fluid responsiveness in spontaneously breathing patients with acute circulatory failure: need for a cautious use. Crit Care 2012; 16: R188
84. Juhl-Olsen P, Vistisen ST, Christiansen LK, Rasmussen LA, Frederiksen CA, Sloth E. Ultrasound of the inferior vena cava does not predict hemodynamic response to early hem- orrhage. J Emerg Med 2013; 45: 5927
85. Corl K, Napoli AM, Gardiner F. Bedside sonographic measurement of the inferior vena cava caval index is a poor predictor of fluid responsiveness in emergency department patients. Emergency Medicine Australasia 2012; 24: 5349
86. Ibarra-Estrada MA, Lopez-Pulgarin JA, Mijangos-Mendez JC, Diaz-Gomez JL, Aguirre-Avalos G. Variation in carotid peak systolic velocity predicts volume responsiveness in mech- anically ventilated patients with septic shock: A prospective cohort study. Crit Ultrasound J 2015; 7: 12
87. Saugel B, Ringmaier S, Holzapfel K, et al. Physical examin- ation, central venous pressure, and chest radiography for the prediction of transpulmonary thermodilution-derived hemodynamic parameters in critically ill patients: A pro- spective trial. J Crit Care 2011; 26: 40210
88. NQF #0500. Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock: management Bundle, January 5 2015, update. www.qualityforum.org. 2015. National Quality Forum. (Acessed 15 May 2015)
90. Fischer JE, Bachmann LM, Jaeschke R. A readers guide to the interpretation of diagnostic test properties: clinical example of sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29: 104351
91. Marik PE, Baram M, Vahid B. Does the central venous pres- sure predict fluid responsiveness? A systematic review of the literature and the tale of seven mares. Chest 2008; 134: 1728
92. Song Y, Kwak YL, Song JW, Kim YJ, Shim JK. Respirophasic carotid artery peak velocity variation as a predictor of fluid
responsiveness in mechanically ventilated patients with coronary artery disease. Br J Anaesth 2014; 113: 616
93. Marik PE, Levitov A, Young A, Andrews L. The use of NICOM (Bioreactance) and Carotid Doppler to determine volume responsiveness and blood flow redistribution following passive leg raising in hemodynamically unstable patients. Chest 2013; 143: 36470
94. Krafft P, Steltzer H, Hiesmayr M, Klimscha W, Hammerle AF. Mixed venous oxygen saturation in critically ill septic shock patients. The role of defined events. Chest 1993; 103: 9006
95. Angus DC, van der Poll T. Severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2013; 369: 84051
96. Pope JV, Jones AE, Gaieski DF, Arnold RC, Trzeciak S, Shapiro NI. Multicenter study of central venous oxygen sat- uration (ScvO(2)) as a predictor of mortality in patients with sepsis. Ann Emerg Med 2010; 55: 406
97. Burton TM. New therapy for sepsis infection raises hope but many questions (lead article). The Wall Street Journal August 14th, 2008. New York, NY, Dow Jone and Company, Inc. (Acessed 14 August 2008)
98. Marik PE. The demise of early goal-directed therapy for se- vere sepsis and septic shock. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2015; 59: 5617
99. Garcia-Alvarez M, Marik P, Bellomo R. Sepsis-associated hy- perlactatemia. Crit Care 2014; 18: 503
100. Hotchkiss RS, Karl IE. Reevaluation of the role of cellular hypoxia and bioenergetics failure in sepsis. JAMA 1992; 267: 150310
101. James JH, Luchette FA, McCarter FD, Fischer JE. Lactate is an unreliable indicator of tissue hypoxia in injury or sepsis. Lancet 1999; 354: 5058
102. James JH, Fang CH, Schrantz SJ, Hasselgren PO, Paul RJ, Fischer JE. Linkage of aerobic glycolysis to sodium-potas- sium transport in rat skeletal muscle. Implications for in- creased muscle lactate production in sepsis. J Clin Invest 1996; 98: 238897
103. Uehara M, Plank LD, Hill GL. Components of energy expend- iture in patients with severe sepsis and major trauma: a basis for clinical care. Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 1295302
104. Kreymann G, Grosser S, Buggisch P, Gottschall C, Matthaei S, Greten H. Oxygen consumption and resting metabolic rate in sepsis, sepsis syndrome, and septic shock. Crit Care Med 1993; 21: 10129
105. Subramaniam A, McPhee M, Nagappan R. Predicting energy expenditure in sepsis: Harris-Benedict and Schofield equa- tions versus the Weir derivation. Crit Care Resus 2012; 14: 20210
106. Marik PE, Sibbald WJ. Effect of stored-blood transfusion on oxygen delivery in patients with sepsis. JAMA 1993; 269: 30249
107. Marik PE, Bellomo R. Lactate clearance as a target of therapy in sepsis: a flawed paradigm. OA Critical Care 2013; 1:3
108. Ronco JJ, Fenwick JC, Tweeddale MG, et al. Identification of the critical oxygen delivery for anaerobic metabolism in critically ill septic and nonseptic humans. JAMA 1993; 270: 172430
109. Brandt S, Regueira T, Bracht H, et al. Effect of fluid resuscita- tion on mortality and organ function in experimental sepsis models. Crit Care 2009; 13: R186
110. Rehberg S, Yamamoto Y, Sousse L, et al. Selective V(1a) agon- ism attenuates vascular dysfunction and fluid accumula- tion in ovine severe sepsis. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2012; 303: H124554
111. Rosenberg AL, Dechert RE, Park PK, Bartlett RH. Review of a large clinical series: association of cumulative fluid balance on outcome in acute lung injury: a retrospective review of the ARDSnet tidal volume study cohort. J Intensive Care Med 2009; 24: 3546
112. Vincent JL, Sakr Y, Sprung CL, et al. Sepsis in European inten- sive care units: results of the SOAP study. Crit Care Med 2006; 34: 34453
113. Alsous F, Khamiees M, DeGirolamo A, moateng-Adjepong Y, Manthous CA. Negative fluid balance predicts survival in patients with septic shock: a retrospective pilot study. Chest 2000; 117: 174954
114. Murphy CV, Schramm GE, Doherty JA, et al. The importance of fluid management in acute lung injury secondary to sep- tic shock. Chest 2009; 136: 1029
115. Chung FT, Lin SM, Lin SY, Lin HC. Impact of extravascular lung water index on outcomes of severe sepsis patients in a medical intensive care unit. Respiratory Medicine 2008; 102: 95661
116. Payen D, de Pont AC, Sakr Y, Spies C, Reinhart K, Vincent JL. A positive fluid balance is associated with a worse outcome in patients with acute renal failure. Crit Care 2008; 12: R74
117. Bouchard J, Soroko SB, Chertow GM, et al. Fluid accumula- tion, survival and recovery of kidney function in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. Kidney Int 2009; 76: 4227
118. Micek SC, McEnvoy C, McKenzie M, Hampton N, Doherty JA, Kollef MH. Fluid balance and cardiac function in septic shock as predictors of hospital mortality. Crit Care 2013; 17: R246
119. Boyd JH, Forbes J, Nakada T, Walley KR, Russell JA. Fluid resuscitation in septic shock: a positive fluid balance and elevated central venous pressure increase mortality. Crit Care Med 2011; 39: 25965
120. Acheampong A, Vincent JL. A positive fluid balance is an independent prognostic factor in patients with sepsis. Crit Care 2015; 19: 251
121. Maitland K, Kiguli S, Opoka RO, et al. Mortality after fluid bolus in African children with severe infection. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 248395
122. Jansen TC, van BJ, Schoonderbeek FJ, et al. Early lactate- guided therapy in intensive care unit patients: a multicen- ter, open-label, randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 182: 75261
123. Maitland K, George EC, Evans JA, et al. Exploring mechan- isms of excess mortality with early fluid resuscitation: insights from the FEAST trial. BMC Medicine 2013; 11: 68
124. Marik PE. Early management of severe sepsis: Current con- cepts and controversies. Chest 2014; 145: 140718
125. Scheingraber S, Rehm M, Sehmisch C, Finsterer U. Rapid saline infusion produces hyperchloremic acidosis in patients undergoing gynecologic surgery. Anesthesiol 1999; 90: 126570
126. Kellum JA, Bellomo R, Kramer DJ, Pinsky MR. Etiology of metabolic acidosis during saline resuscitation in endotoxe- mia. Shock 1998; 9: 3648
127. Waters JH, Gottlieb A, Schoenwald P, Popovich MJ, Sprung J, Nelson DR. Normal saline versus lactated Ringers solution for intraoperative fluid management in patients undergoing abdominal aortic aneurysm repair: an outcome study. Anesth Analg 2001; 93: 81722
128. Reid F, Lobo DN, Williams RN, Rowlands BJ, Allison SP. (Ab) normal saline and physiological Hartmanns solution: a ran- domized double-blind crossover study. Clinical Science 2003; 104: 1724
129. Mohd Yunos N, Bellomo R, Hegarty C, Stoty D, Ho L, Bailey M. Association between a chloride-liberal vs chloride-restrict- ive intravenous fluid administration strategy and kidney injury in critically ill adults. JAMA 2012; 308: 156672
130. Raghunathan K, Shaw A, Nathanson B, et al. Association between the choice of IV crystalloid and in-hospital mortal- ity among critically ill adults with sepsis. Crit Care Med 2014; 42: 158591
131. Perner A, Haase N, Guttormsen AB, et al. Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.4 versus Ringers Acetate in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 12434
132. Haase N, Perner A, Hennings LI, et al. Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.380.45 versus crystalloid or albumin in patients with sepsis: systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Br Med J 2013; 346: f839
133. Kirkpatrick AW, Roberts DJ, De WJ, et al. Intra-abdominal hypertension and the abdominal compartment syndrome: updated consensus definitions and clinical practice guidelines from the World Society of the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome. Intensive Care Med 2013; 39: 1190206
134. Malbrain ML, Marik PE, Witters I, et al. De-resuscitation in the critically ill: What, why, when and how? Results of a meta-analysis and systematic review on the impact of fluid overload on morbidity and mortality. Anesthesiology Intensive Therapy 2014; 46: 36180
135. Asfar P, Meziani F, Hamel JF, et al. High versus low blood- pressure target in patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med 2014; 370: 158393
136. Monnet X, Jabot J, Maizel J, Richard C, Teboul JL. Norepineph- rine increases cardiac preload and reduces preload depend- ency assessed by passive leg raising in septic shock patients. Crit Care Med 2011; 39: 68994
137. Datta P, Magder S. Hemodynamic response to norepineph- rine with and without inhibition of nitric oxide synthase in porcine endotoxemia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 198793
138. Persichini R, Silva S, Teboul JL, et al. Effects of norepineph- rine on mean systemic pressure and venous return in human septic shock. Crit Care Med 2012; 40: 314653
139. Kozieras J, Thuemer O, Sakka SG. Influence of an acute in- crease in systemic vascular resistance on transpulmonary thermodilution-derived parameters in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 2007; 33: 161923
140. Hamzaoui O, Georger JF, Monnet X, et al. Early administra- tion of norepinephrine increases cardiac preload and cardiac output in septic patients with life-threatening hypo- tension. Crit Care 2010; 14: R142
141. Abid O, Akca S, Haji-Michael P, Vincent JL. Strong vasopres- sor support may be futile in the intensive care unit patient with multiple organ failure. Crit Care Med 2000; 28: 9479
142. Di Giantomasso D, May CN, Bellomo R. Norepinephrine and vital organ blood flow during experimental hyperdynamic sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29: 177481
143. Di Giantomasso D, Morimatsu H, May CN, Bellomo R. Intrar- enal blood flow distribution in hyperdynamic septic shock: Effect of norepinephrine. Crit Care Med 2003; 31: 250913
144. Jhanji S, Stirling S, Patel N, Hinds CJ, Pearse RM. The effect of increasing doses of norepinephrine on tissue oxygenation and microvascular flow in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 2009; 37: 19616
145. Hayes MA, Yau EH, Hinds CJ, Watson JD. Symmetrical peripheral gangrene: association with noradrenaline ad- ministration. Intensive Care Med 1992; 18: 4336
146. Dunser MW, Mayr AJ, Tur A, et al. Ischemic skin lesions as a complication of continuous vasopressin infusion in catecholamine-resistant vasodilatory shock: incidence and risk factors. Crit Care Med 2003; 31: 13948
147. Anantasit N, Boyd JH, Walley KR, Russell JA. Serious adverse events associated with vasopressin and norepin- ephrine infusion in septic shock. Crit Care Med 2014; 42: 181220
148. Hotchkiss RS, Levy JH, Levi M. Sepsis-induced disseminated intravascular coagulation, symmetrical peripheral gan- grene, and amputations. Crit Care Med 2013; 41: e2901
149. Cardenas-Garcia J, Schaub KF, Belchikov YG, Narasimhan M, Koenig SJ, Mayo PH. Safety of peripheral intravenous admin- istration of vasoactive medication. J Hosp Med 2015; 10: 5815
150. Ducrocq N, Kimmoun A, Furmaniuk A, et al. Comparison of equipressor doses of norepinephrine, epinephrine,
and phenylephrine on septic myocardial dysfunction.
Anesthesiol 2012; 116: 108391
151. Minneci PC, Deans KJ, Banks SM, et al. Differing effects of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and vasopressin on survival in a canine model of septic shock. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2004; 287: H254554
152. Vasu TS, Cavallazzi R, Hirani A, Kaplan G, Marik PE. Norepin- ephrine or dopamine for septic shock: A systematic review of randomized clinical trials. J Intensive Care Med 2011; 27: 1728
153. De Baker D, Aldecoa C, Njimi H, Vincent JL. Dopamine versus norepinephrine in the treatment of septic shock: A meta- analysis. Crit Care Med 2011; 40: 72530
154. Fawzy A, Evans SR, Walkey AJ. Practice patterns and out- comes associated with choice of initial vasopressor therapy for septic shock. Crit Care Med 2015; 43: 21416