WHEN NOUNS SURFACE AS VERBS 1 page

1. Categories of denominal verbs. The meanings of ordinary denominal verbs, it seems clear, bear at least an approximate relationship to their ‘parent’ nouns, from which they were historically derived. The verb bottle bears some relation, at least diachronically, to its parent noun bottle. To illustrate the major relationships, we will present a classification of more than 1300 denominal verbs collected from newspapers, magazines, novels, radio, television, consultants, and previous studies. To make our task manageable, we have included only those verbs that fit these four guidelines:

(a) Each verb had to be formed from its parent noun without affixation (though with possible final voicing, as in shelve). This is by far the commonest method of forming denominal verbs in English.

(b) The parent noun of each verb had to denote a palpable object or property of such an object, as in sack, knee, and author – but not climax, function, or question. As Marchand points out, the former comprise the majority of denominal verbs in English. In any case, we wished to found our theory of interpretation on what people know about states, events, and processes associated with concrete objects. There is no theoretical reason to assume that the other denominal verbs are subject to fundamentally different principles.

(c) Each verb had to have a non-metaphorical concrete use as far as possible. This again was to help keep our theory of interpretation within limits, although in some cases we couldn’t avoid examining certain extended meanings.

(d) Each verb had to be usable as a genuine finite verb. This excluded expressions like three-towered and six-legged, which occur only as denominal adjectives.

In this classification we have put innovations like houseguest, Sunday School, and Wayne in with ordinary denominal verbs like land, ape, and man, which are already well established as verbs. For one thing, innovations and well-established verbs are really two ends of a continuum, with no sharp dividing line between them. For another, the words that are at present well established as verbs were themselves once innovations; so, by surveying both, we will get a more complete picture of the process of innovation. These are issues we will take up in more detail later. Never­theless, we have marked what to our British or American ears are innovations with a raised plus (thus ⁺ blanket the bed). We cannot expect full agreement on these judgments, for reasons that will become clear later.

The classification that we have come to, like those of Jespersen, Marchand, and Adams, really applies to the paraphrases of these verbs. For each main category there is a general paraphrase that roughly fits most of its members. The paraphrases themselves are then classified on the basis of the case role that the parent noun plays in them; we have labeled most of the categories with the names for the case roles given by Fillmore. These paraphrases, however, are no more than heuristic devices, enabling us to group verbs with similar origins. They do not (and, as we shall see, cannot) capture all the content of each verb. Most of the well-established verbs are specialized in ways not capturable in general paraphrases. More importantly, these paraphrases are not intended to represent the sources from which the verbs are derived, either now or historically. Indeed, the theories that assume such derivation, we will argue, are inadequate to handle even the innova­tions among these verbs. The theory of interpretation we offer below does not work from these sources. In brief, the paraphrases are not themselves intended to carry any theoretical significance.

1.1. Locatum verbs are ones whose parent nouns are in the objective case in clauses that describe the location of one thing with respect to another. Blanket is such a verb, as shown by the relation between the verb blanket in 1 and the noun blanket in 2, a paraphrase:

(1) Jane blanketed the bed.

(2) Jane did something to cause it to come about that [the bed had one or

more blankets on it].

Extending our kinship terminology, we will call the clause in square brackets in 2 the ‘parent clause’ for the verb blanket. In the parent clause, blanket is in the objective case. All the other transitive locatum verbs in List 1 also fit this pattern.

List 1: Locatum verbs

A. On. Coverings: Temporary – ⁺blanket the bed, ⁺ bedspread the bed, ⁺coverlet the bed, slipcover the cushion, cover the cushion, ⁺sheet the furniture, ⁺oilcloth the table, linoleum the kitchen, carpet the floor, ⁺wool-carpet the floor, ⁺ shag-rug the floor, newspaper the shelves, ⁺roll the trees (with lavatory paper), camouflage the tents, litter the highway. Permanent – paper the wall, wallpaper the wall, paint the ceiling, spray-paint the door, water-paint the wall, flat-paint the cupboards, oil-paint the house, ⁺polyurethane the floor, ⁺acrylic the car,varnish the furniture, shellac the furniture, enamel the chair, ⁺lime the wall, beeswax the table, wax the table, whitewash the fence, coat the furniture. Permanent solid – roof the house, cedar-shingle the house, brick the path, tile the floor, ⁺parquet the floor, plaster the ceiling, ⁺turf the yard, cobblestone the road, tarmac the road, gravel the driveway, asphalt the lot, seed the lawn, forest the land, feather the nest, pad the cell, panel the room, ⁺plank the floor. VISCOUS – marmalade the toast, butter the bread, jam the scones, ⁺lemon-icing the cake, ice the cake, ⁺extract-of-beef the bread [Punch], ⁺almond-topping the cake, grease the pan, ⁺Crisco the pan, soap one’s face, cold-cream one’s face, pomade his hair, salve the cut, balm the wound, ink the nib, perfume her neck, blood the huntsman, oil the hinges, water the roses, ⁺mist the plants, tar-and-feather the prisoner. Powdery – powder her nose, rouge her cheeks, talc the baby, chalk the cue, flour the board, crumb the ham, bread the cutlets, dust the cake, sugar the fruit, ⁺graphite the lock, ⁺cork his face, resin his shoes (ballet), sawdust the floor. Metal – chrome the knife, silver the dish, tin the tray. Human – man the ship, people the earth, ⁺personnel the office, ⁺tenant the building, mob the speaker. Opaque – (tr.) ⁺rime the window; (intr.) ice over, mist over, fog up, cloud over. Individual Objects: dress – dress the boy, clothe the child, ⁺robe the child, ⁺shawl the child, ⁺sweater the child, ⁺shirt the model, ⁺trouser the boy, belt his pants, ⁺jacket the child, glove her hands, ⁺cloak the model, ⁺uniform the guards, ⁺straitjacket the patient, mask the players, diaper the baby, ⁺Pamper the baby, nappy the baby, crown the king, ⁺beard the actor, wig the actress, ⁺cap the child, ⁺fig-leaf the statue, veil one’s face, ⁺black-tie it, kerchief her hair, shroud the corpse. Animal paraphernalia – saddle the horse, halter the donkey, shoe the horse, muzzle the dog, rug the horses, bridle the horse, rein the horse, collar the dog, harness the donkey, yoke the oxen. Symbols – date the check, sign the check, ⁺receipt the bill, initial the memo, address the letter, zip-code the letter, graffiti the walls, asterisk the sentence, star the sentence, ⁺watermark the paper, brand the cattle, stamp the passport, cross oneself. Labels – ticket the car, label the jars, ⁺badge the members, name the dog, nickname the child, stamp the letter, seal the letter, wax-seal the letter, poster the wall, ⁺placard the wall, tag the bird, signpost the entrance, ⁺license-plate the car. Decorations – festoon the room, garland the door, sequin the dress, ⁺polka-dot the walls,picture the walls, ⁺pearl the headdress, ⁺ring their fingers, ⁺jewel her hands, ⁺pattern the plate, ⁺tin-can the wedding car, ⁺vine the terrace. Miscellaneous – tea-cosy the pot, crown the tooth, cap the tooth, ⁺lidthe jar, cushion the chair, bandage his ankle, string the guitar, bait the hook, ⁺stair-rod the carpet, flag the towns on a map, ⁺battlement the castle, ⁺pickle the hamburger, scar his arm, ⁺scab his arm, bruise his elbow, chin the bar, breast the wave, dog-ear the page, patch the jacket, spot the cloth, ⁺shaft the arrow, feather the arrow, ⁺we rebristle your hairbrushes [ad], timber the house.

A'. Not-on. Coverings: skin the rabbit, feather the goose, shell the peanuts, shuck the corn, scale the fish, peel the apple, ⁺rind the lemon, dust the shelf, husk the corn, hull sunflower seeds, ⁺bark the tree, fleece the sheep, ⁺flesh the hide, ⁺rind the bacon, ⁺hide the carcass, sweat the horse (riding). Individual objects: ⁺limb the tree, ⁺stem the grapes, ⁺stalk the elder flowers (recipe), girdle the tree, top the tree, ⁺fin the fish, ⁺gill the fish, pinion the bird, beard the oysters,
head the willow, bur the wool, poll/pollard the tree, pants the boy, ⁺lint the clothes [Consumer Reports], scalp the settler, ⁺flea the dog, louse the children.

B. In. Condiments: spice the food, salt the food, pepper the food, salt-and-pepper the food, ⁺lemon the tea, sugar the tea, cream his coffee, cream-and-sugar the coffee, ⁺ligase the DNA, ice the drinks. Fuels: gas the car, ⁺Quaker State the car [ad], fuel the 747, coal the ship, fire the kiln. Clothing parts: ⁺seam the dress, ⁺gusset the dress, hem the garment, hemstitch the cuff, buttonhole the shirt, stitch the seam, ladder the nylons, ⁺dart the blouse. Miscellaneous: thread the needle, lace the shoes, block the shoes, partition the room, block the road, barricade the road, cork the bottle, stopper the bottle, bug the room, ⁺stepping-stone the stream, plug the hole, ⁺tree the shoes, dam the river, soil the clothes, leaven the bread, ⁺pillthe cat, ⁺mast the ship, pit the paint, rafter the house, beam the ceiling, ⁺lantern the window, ⁺restump the house (put in new supports for a house).

B'. Not-in. Pit the cherries, pip the grapes, stone the dates, core the apple, bone the fish, gut the fish, grallach the deer (hunting), brain the man, wind the man, worm the puppy, weed the garden, fish the stream, milk the cow, juice the orange, burl the cloth, loot the town, pillage the city.

С. At, to. ⁺Gift the city, ⁺Christmas-gift each other, ⁺cocktail the diners, fodder the sheep, pension the old man, horse the soldiers, arm the men, ⁺postcard the friend, petition the governor, summons the driver, subpoena the president, serenade the crowd, ⁺allowance his children, ⁺message the president, water the horses, ⁺fee the lawyer, bribe the official, drug the man, poison the rat, dope the horse, earth the radio, ground the radio, ⁺tomato the passerby, ⁺rotten-egg the speaker, ⁺The people on the street were handbilled with information [NBC], snowball the visitor, ⁺tin each other (throw pie tins at), ⁺chair up (acquire chairs) [ad].

D. Around. Fence the yard, wall (in) the garden, frame the picture, screen (in) the porch, glass (in) the sundeck, ⁺greenbelt the town, ⁺ring-road the town.

E. Along. ⁺Tree the avenue, fence the street, hedge the road, ⁺gutter the street, ⁺curb the street, ⁺ billboard the highway, signpost the road.

F. Over. Bridge the stream, span the river, ⁺lid one’s eyes.

G. Through. ⁺Tunnel the mountain.

H. With. ⁺Trustee the property.

By definition, the parent clauses for locatum verbs describe locations, e.g. that blankets are on the bed. The locatum verbs, can therefore be subdivided by the locative preposition in the parent clause. The prepositions that turned up in our classification, in either our British or American usage, are on, in, at, around, along, over, through, and with, and the negative prepositions not-on and not-in. It is noteworthy that there are many locatum verbs for the positive prepositions (especially for the elementary prepositions in, on, and at), but only a few for the negatives not-on and not-in.

The remaining parts of the parent clauses are systematically related to the arguments and prepositions associated with each locatum verb. The general case can be illustrated for a transitive and an intransitive verb. For the tr. blanket the bed, the parent locatum (blanket)corresponds to the surface verb, and the parent location (bed)to the surface object; the parent preposition (on)is left unspecified. For the intr. The windows iced over, the parent locatum (ice)again corresponds to the (surface verb, the parent location (windows)to the surface subject, and the parent preposition (over)to the verb particle. Prepositions don’t appear as particles very often. Some of the transitive verbs also occur as middle verbs, as in The wall papered nicely and My arm bruises easily, where the agent that is normally explicit is left unspecified. Of course, both the true intransitive and the middle verbs are related to the transitive verbs, just as The men marched in (intr.) is related to The sergeant marched the men in (tr.); and The floor swept easily (middle) is related to Bill swept the floor (tr.). Among denominal verbs, the transitive verbs describe outcomes that are normally caused by agents, whereas the true intransitive verbs describe outcomes that are not.

1.2. Location and duration verbs. For location verbs, the parent nouns are in the locative case:

(3) Kenneth kenneled the dog.

(4) Kenneth did something to cause it to come about that [the dog was in a

kennel].

Again, the parent clause is locative, but here the parent location (kennel)corresponds to the surface verb, and the parent locatum (dog)to the surface object. This pattern is just the reverse of locatum verbs. In gas the car, with a locatum verb, the gas goes in the car; but in kennel the dog, with a location verb, the kennel doesn’t go in the dog – the dog goes in the kennel. The location verbs in List 2 have been further categorized by the preposition in the parent clause, and by properties of the entities denoted by the parent nouns. Although most are transitive, some are ordinarily only intransitive, e.g. surface;others can be either, e.g. bed down. For the intransitives, the parent locatum corresponds to the surface subject, making the usual parallel between intr. The child bedded down and tr. We bedded the child down.

List 2: Location verbs

A. On. Storage places: ground the planes, beach the boats, land the boat, bench the players, ⁺clothes-rack the hat, ⁺clothes-horse the trousers, ⁺doormat the boots, shelve the books, spool the thread, ⁺rack the plates, ⁺hook the cups. Strings: string the beads, spit the chicken, skewer the meat, tender the balloon, leash the dog. Lists: list the participants, blacklist the director, ⁺short-list the candidate, ⁺sick-list the patient, ⁺wait-list the traveller, book the flight, log the travel, docket the case, schedule the appointment, slate the speakers, inventory the goods, ⁺front-page the scandal, headline the story, ⁺bulletin the news, ⁺banner the message. Visual locations: screen the movie, chart the route, map the area, ⁺blueprint the plans. Miscellaneous: land the plane, floor his opponent, stage the play, table the document, ⁺easel the canvases, ⁺sidewalk the merchandise, strand the passengers, ⁺island the travellers, ⁺ horse the troops, curb the dog, spot the ball (football), sidetrack the detective, ⁺keyboard a new computer language, shoulder the knapsack, hip one’s opponent (wrestling); (intr.) The bird perched, The boat landed.

A'. Not-on. Tee off the (golf) ball.

B. In. Habitat: (tr.) headquarter the troops, bivouac the soldiers, lodge the guests, bed the stones in mortar, field the candidates, jail the prisoner, jug the thief, quod the burglar, cloister the nuns, shelter the fugitives, house the people, stable the horse, ⁺stall the horse, ⁺barn the cows, ⁺shed the cows, kennel the dogs, pen the pigs, ⁺sty the pigs, coop the chickens, cage the tigers, ⁺hive the bees, earth the badger (hunting), ⁺tanker extra fuel [Jack Anderson]; (intr.) ⁺hut, nest, roost, slum, camp, room at the Waldorf, ⁺youth-hostel in Europe, ⁺office in Houston [ad], hole up in the woods, ⁺tidepool in the shallows of the Stanislaus river, ⁺headquarter in San Raphael, ⁺tent along the frontier [Time]. Storage places: cellar the wine, ⁺closet the clothes, ⁺cloakroom his briefcase, ⁺cupboard the stores, garage the car, park the car, harbor the boat, berth the boat, drydock the boat, ⁺hangar the airplane, dairy the milk, ⁺silo the corn, corral the horses, pasture the cows, ⁺warehouse the aliens [CBS], pigeonhole the bill, ⁺desk the papers, file the reports, ⁺file-cabinet the letters, ⁺showcase the rings, ⁺billfold the money, pocket the change, ⁺coin-purse the pennies, bank the money, ⁺piggy-bank the nickels, ⁺shrine the relics, ⁺scabbard the sword. Containers: pot the begonias, can the fruit, tin the peaches, jug the hare, ⁺creel the trout, sack the potatoes, bag the potatoes, box the apples, ⁺barrel the apples, ⁺case the violin, bottle the wine, ⁺keg the beer, ⁺pouch the tobacco, ⁺flask the whisky, ⁺coffer the jewels, ⁺casket the jewels, ⁺coffin the body, ⁺litter-basket your empties [beer carton], ⁺hole the ball. Pictures: picture the man, graph the data, ⁺window the view, film the action, ⁺snapshot his team, photograph the children. Miscellaneous: package the books, parcel the presents, book the receipts, dish up the food, brine the pickles, seat the people, corner the mouse, tree the possum, pillory the prisoner, cradle the child, ⁺cache the booty, bed the child, bunk the children down for the night, ⁺porch the newspaper, catalog the pictures, register the guests, palm the card, air the clothes, mothball the sweaters, church the women (after childbirth), mire the horses, ⁺footnote her colleagues, ⁺card the example (write on a card), ⁺minute the decision (put into the minutes), orbit the satellite, sun oneself, ⁺sky his surplus guests [Heath Robinson]; orbit (around) the moon, ⁺sauna after exercising.

B'. Not in. Mine the gold, quarry the marble, pod the peas, shell the peas.

С At, to. (tr.) ⁺site the power-plant, ⁺parking-meter the car, ⁺desk oneself [Sunday Times], floor the accelerator, boundary the ball (cricket), dock the boat, station the troops, center the picture, face the enemy; (intr.) The diver surfaced, ⁺His beer brimmed over, The well bottomed out, ⁺The fire spread by crowning (jumping from one treetop to another) [SF Chronicle].

For location verbs, the prepositions have dwindled to the simplest three: in, on, and at, with a few examples of not-on and not-in. Tee off the golf ball is classified as not-on, since its parent clause can be said to be The ball is not on the tee. Off marks it as negative, perhaps to contrast it with tee up. The other negative verbs are not marked this way. In any case, negative verbs are rare.

The duration verbs in List 3, like the location verbs, have parent nouns in prepositional phrases:

(5) Julia summered in Paris.

(6) Julia did something to cause it to come about that [Julia was in Paris for a

summer].

The parent noun, however, must denote a stretch of time and take a preposition like for. This rules out points of time, like noon and midnight, and qualifications incompatible with the stretch of time, as in * Julia summered for a week in Paris. Although most duration verbs are intransitive, some can be transitive too, as in Washington wintered his troops at Valley Forge.

List 3: Duration verbs

Summer in France, winter in California, vacation in Mexico, holiday in France, weekend at the cabin, honeymoon in Hawaii, ⁺Christmas in England, ⁺New Year in Omaha, ⁺Thanksgiving with his parents, moonlight as a watchman, ⁺daylights as a barber [Herb Caen], ⁺jet-lag from Sydney to London [Caen], ⁺overnight at the White House [CBS].

1.3. Agent and experiencer verbs. With agent verbs, the parent nouns are in the agentive case:

(7) John butchered the cow.

(8) John did to the cow the act that one would normally expect [a butcher to

do to a cow].

In the parent clause, the butcher is an agent. Altered appropriately, the paraphrase in 8 works fairly well for the other transitive verbs (jockey the horse), the intransitive verbs (clown around), and even the verbs with animal parents (ape the politician), all given in List 4.

List 4: Agent verbs

A. Occupations: (tr.) butcher the cow, jockey the horse, referee the game, umpire the match, nurse the patient, doctor the victim, ⁺nursemaid the baby, tutor the boys, valet the squire, pilot the ship, captain the destroyer, skipper the boat, police the park, guard the jewels, emcee the show, model the clothes, shepherd the sheep, vet the dog, ⁺general the army, ⁺agent a book, author the book, ⁺broker insurance, tailor the suit; (intr.) soldier, maid, butler, clown, smith, ⁺goldsmith, ⁺silversmith, ⁺carpenter, apprentice for a job, pioneer, ⁺buccaneer, ⁺pickpocket, ⁺gigolo, pimp, pander,' ⁺chef, ⁺laundress [Dickens], ⁺blackleg, ⁺lawyer, ⁺pilot, priest, ⁺waitress, ⁺housewife (for a living).

B. Special roles: (tr.) monitor an exam, referee the game, champion the cause, partner the host, usher the people to their seats, escort the ambassador, ⁺companion the queen, squire his cousin, chaperone his daughter, mother the child, sire the child, father the child, parent the children, husband someone, wife someone, ⁺uncle someone, lord it over people, queen it over her friends, ⁺god it, bully the children, boss the employee, ⁺chairman the department, master the horse, doctor the drinks, pirate the ship, lynch the prisoner, burke the man, jobe the crowd [archaic], filibuster the bill, ⁺to Beck (act badly, like Beck) [film review], volunteer the information, ⁺Ancient Mariner someone, ⁺heir the estate [Pope], ⁺fishwife each other, marshal the cro wd, rival his cousins, spirit the man away, ⁺high-hat the guest, ⁺ Rolf the patient, p`icket the factory, dragoon someone into doing something, ⁺housewife the money [Defoe], ⁺Don't Bogart that joint [song], vaquero the cow [Herb Caen]; (intr.) ⁺flunkey for someone, ⁺ soprano, star in a film, corpse in the last scene (acting), ⁺houseguest with the Joneses, clown around, ⁺racketeer, fool around, ⁺barbershop, clerk in a shop, slave over the work, ⁺post-doc with someone, minister to the needy, ⁺pundit at the meeting, chum up with him, buddy around together, ⁺one boy-one girl it, knight, gipsy, quarterback for the giants, vagabond in Europe, ⁺tourist through the East Coast, neighbor on, ⁺private-eye, gossip, ⁺lover, ⁺heroine, meander, ⁺man it out, ⁺he enfant-terrible’d gracefully.

С Animals: (tr.) ⁺fox the people, outfox his followers, parrot every word, dog the escapee, bird-dog the escapee, ⁺watchdog the house [Peanuts], hound the politician, ape the policeman, copycat the teacher, ferret out the burglar, squirrel away the money, buffalo the audience, wolf the food down, ⁺spaniel’d me at heels [Shakespeare]; (intr.) worm out of a commitment, chicken out of a fight, pig at the dinner-table, snake through the cars, duck down, leech (to, onto), rat on the fugitive, clam up, buck up, monkey with the door, hare down the road, ⁺rabbit along at 90 miles an hour (talk fast) [SF Chronicle], skylark, crane, beef about the food, ⁺moused along the parkside [Galsworthy], crow about something, ⁺peacocked about his ancestry [Galsworthy], ⁺cat it up the waterpipe.

Experiencer verbs (List 5) are apparently rare. Witness the accident is classified that way on the premise that witnesses do not watch accidents, but see them. As for boycott and badger, historically they meant ‘do the act one would do to Captain Boycott’ and ‘do the act a dog would do to a badger’.

List 5: Experiencer verbs

Witness the accident,boycott tie store, badger the officials.

1.4. Goal and source verbs. For the goal verbs in List 6, the parent nouns are in the goal case:

(9) Edward powdered the aspirin.

(10) Edward did something to cause it to come about that [the aspirin was powder].

In 10, the powder comes to exist because of Edward’s action, and so powder is in the goal case. In loop the rope, only part of the rope may become a loop, but loop is still in the goal case. When the verb is transitive, the parent clause specifies both a source (aspirin) and a goal (powder). The source denotes the substance from which the goal is made. When the verb is intransitive, as in the cow calved, the parent clause specifies only a goal, as in There was a calf. The parent noun, here calf, denotes the entity brought into existence, with no mention of the substance from which it was made. The important characteristic of these verbs is their factitivity: the shape, entity, form, or role denoted by the parent noun comes to exist by virtue of the action denoted by the verb.

List 6: Goal verbs

A. Human roles: Fool the man, orphan the children, baby the student, knight Gawain, sucker the public, scapegoat the Jews, cuckold his neighbour, cripple the man, beggar his opponents, gull the onlookers, dupe the voter, widow the woman, outlaw the thief, ⁺countess the woman [Meredith], dwarf his enemies, ⁺saint the reformer, martyr the woman, ⁺god the hero, ⁺hostage the child, recruit the boy, ⁺monk the man, apprentice the youth.

B. Groups: (tr.) group the actors, pod the seals, regiment the crowd, parade the troops, line up the class, sequence the lessons, array the jewelry, swarm the bees, order the data; (intr.) cluster around the hive, group together, club together, gang up, line up, queue up, The fish schooled, The politicians caucused.

С Masses: (tr.) pile the money, mass the money, heap the dirt, hoard the acorns, pool the savings, carpool the people, bundle the clothes, ⁺lawn the grass, stack the boards, sheaf the wheat, bale the straw, pulp the oranges; (intr.) The water puddled/pooled on the floor; ⁺It tills and hills (ad for garden equipment).

D. Shapes: (tr.) loop the rope, coil the rope, knot the string, crook his finger, ⁺hinge his knee, curl up his toes, ball up the handkerchief, braid her hair, plait her hair, ringlet her hair, wrinkle the sheets, crease the tablecloth, pleat the kilt, ⁺accordion the curtains, honeycomb the cliffs, dice the potatoes, cube the potatoes, ⁺ match-stick the potatoes, ⁺julienne the potatoes, ⁺square his fists, cup his hands, ⁺tent the blanket, ⁺balloon up his clothes, block his hat, form the circle, terrace the slopes, ⁺spread-eagle his opponent, silhouette the tree against the sky, ⁺concertina the place-card, ⁺lump the sugar, ⁺loaf the dough, ⁺layer the cake, ⁺bulbed his nose [Farris]; (intr.) bead with sweat, cave in, balloon up, The clouds mushroomed, The trains telescoped, cocoon with blankets, ⁺It’s stratusing right now [weather report], The truckjack-knifed.

Date: 2016-04-22; view: 641