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CHAPTER 18

Stress in Organizations

SABINE SONNENTAG AND MICHAEL FRESE

THE STRESS CONCEPT 454

Overview of Conceptualizations of Stress 454 Stressors 454 Stress Reactions 456 THEORIES ON ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS 457

Theoretical Models Focusing on the Stress Process 457
k Theoretical Models on the Relationship Between Stressful
^ Situations and Strains 458

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE 460

Main Effects of Stressful Situations on Individual

Well-Being and Health 460 The Role of Resources 467

Stress in organizations is a widespread phenomenon with far-reaching practical and economic consequences. A report published by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (1999) in the United States summarized findings from various surveys on organizational stress and found that between 26 and 40% of all surveyed workers experi­enced their work as very stressful. Similarly, 28% of the workers in the European Union reported that their work causes stress (Levi & Lunde-Jensen, 1996). In Japan, the percentage is even higher than either of these (Harnois & Gabriel, 2000).

Experiencing organizational stress is related to health problems and their associated costs. A study based on more "lan 46,000 U.S. employees showed that health care costs were 46% higher for workers who experienced high levels of stress (Goetzel et al., 1998). Moreover, organizational stress ^{1S ass}umed to be related to increased absenteeism. For exam-Pie, estimates from the U.S. and England suggest that about °e half of all lost days within organizations are related to workplace stress (Cooper, Liukkonen, & Cartwright, 1996;

^e ^e grateful to Paul Spector and Doris Fay for their helpful ments and suggestions on an earlier version of this chapter.

Stress and Performance 471

Stress and Other Aspects of Organizational Behavior 473 STRESS INTERVENTIONS 474

Stressor Reduction 475

Increase in Resources 475

Combination of Stressor Reduction and Increase in Resources 476

Strain Reduction 476

Lifestyle Changes 478

Conclusion on Stress Interventions 478 OVERALL CONCLUSIONS 479 REFERENCES 481

Elkin & Rosch, 1990). Absenteeism costs organizations billions of dollars per year (Cox, Griffiths, & Rial-Gonzales, 2000). In the long run, stress might lead to disabilities. Data from the Netherlands show that 30% of all cases of disability pensions are due to stress-related disorders (Van der Hek & Plomp, 1997), and similar findings exist for other countries. Moreover, mortality rates were found to be related to occupa­tional groups—that is, to work-specific stressors (Fletcher, 1991).

Because of this practical relevance of workplace stress, there is an enormous and still ongoing research activity within the field of organizational stress (Beehr, 1995). Find­ings from past research have been summarized in previous review chapters and journal articles (Beehr & Newman, 1978; Danna & Griffin, 1999; Ganster & Schaubroeck, 1991; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992; McGrath, 1976; Sullivan & Bhagat, 1992). Many researchers criticized organizational stress studies for methodological weaknesses (Frese & Zapf, 1988; Kasl, 1978). Their main concerns referred to the fol­lowing issues: The overwhelming majority of the empirical studies are cross-sectional in nature and do not allow infer­ences on causality. In many studies the independent and de­pendent measures share common method variance and overlap in content. Most studies focus on bivariate, linear

454 Stress in Organizations

relationships and neglect possible moderator and nonlinear effects.

Nevertheless, over the years researchers witnessed meth­odological improvements in organizational stress studies (Beehr, 1998; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992), particularly during the past 10 years; the improvements include (a) a better operationalization of basic concepts that allow a better test of theoretical models (e.g., Edwards & Harrison, 1993; Wall, Jackson, Mullarkey, & Parker, 1996); (b) an increasing num­ber of studies that use objective measures of stressors (Greiner, Ragland, Krause, Syme, & Fisher, 1997; Melamed, Ben-Avi, Luz, & Green, 1995); (c) a steady increase in lon­gitudinal studies, with many of them using a structural equa­tion modeling approach for data analysis (e.g., Bakker, I Schaufeli, Sixma, Bosveld, & van Dierendonck, 2000; Dor-* mann & Zapf, 1999; Schonfeld, 1992); (d) exploration of curvilinear effects (e.g., de Jonge & Schaufeli, 1998; Dol-lard, Winefield, Winefield, & de Jonge, 2000; Warr, 1990); and (e) use of innovative approaches such as multilevel de­signs (e.g., Jex & Bliese, 1999) and growth curve models (e.g., Barnett & Brennan, 1997; Garst, Frese, & Molenaar, 2000).

This chapter reviews research on stress in organizations and its practical implications. It aims at an extension of previ­ous reviews by focusing more strongly on methodologically sound—although not perfect—studies. This gives us the op­portunity to examine more deeply the processes and conse­quences associated with organizational stress. Specifically, we address the question of whether methodologically improved studies contribute to a better understanding of organizational stress. Most of the more recent review chapters and articles have exclusively looked at health and well-being conse­quences of organizational stress (Danna & Griffin, 1999; Ganster & Schaubroeck, 1991; Kahn & Byosiere, 1992). We broaden the view by including performance and other organi­zational behavior issues (e.g., organizational commitment and absenteeism).

In the first section of this chapter, we describe the stress concept and give an overview of stressors and stress reac­tions. In the second section, we present theories of organiza­tional stress. The third section is devoted to empirical findings in organizational stress research. We describe the empirical evidence of main and moderator effects on the re­lationship between stressors and individual health and well-being. We summarize research findings on the relationship between stress and performance, In addition, we refer to the effects of stress on other aspects of organizational behavior. In the fourth section, we describe stress management inter­ventions. In conclusion, we suggest a few research questions for the future.

THE STRESS CONCEPT

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