Sex roles, gender stereotypes, and culture.

The biological differences between the sexes are assuredly the basis for the evolution of the division of labor and corresponding sex roles. Sex roles are ubiquitous in all societies and define what men and women are permitted to do and how they are expected to behave. In more rigid traditional societies sex roles also define what the genders should or must do as part of daily interactions. Women are obviously the only sex to give birth and breast feed babies. Nevertheless with the advent of formula baby food, men are taking on feeding responsibilities in some societies. Having noted that exception the genders however because of their biological differences may be uniquely placed to perform complementary gender related tasks in child care. However, both sexes can perform many of the same home and work related tasks. Nevertheless women take on most of the obligations related to child care in many societies, and in the modern world where women also work they hold up more than “half “of the heavens to expand on the quotation of Mao.

Sex role theory might also explain ubiquitous gender differences in the expression of emotions. A comparative study of 37 cultures found the same general pattern of gender based emotional expression in both Western and non-Western societies. Typically men express more anger when aroused whereas women tended to express more fear or sadness compared to males (Fischer, Rodriquez Mosquera, van Vianen, & Manstead, 2004). These differences are consistent with the higher level of aggression expected of men and boys, whereas girls and women are expected to be more compassionate. The research also shows that females express emotions more openly than men except in the case of anger. Women seek to foster care-taking and affiliation and are therefore more likely to express feelings of love, sympathy, guilt, and happiness, whereas men do so to a lesser extent for fear of being vulnerable (Brody & Hall, 1993). Men in traditional cultures seek to restore honor when they have been shamed by aggressive or retaliatory behavior, whereas women will react to shame by submissive behavior (Abu-Lughod, 1986).

Culture encourages over time gender based stereotypes that have produced unique social roles. A common finding in Western cultures is the perception of females as weaker, more emotional and more compliant. Males on the other hand are typically viewed as assertive, more dominant and independent. The masculine traits produce in men a greater willingness to confront danger and seek adventure that is the basis of the human migration story. The most important study done on gender stereotypes was carried out by Williams and Best (1990a). They submitted a 300-item adjective check list to respondents in twenty-seven countries from the major regions of Europe, Africa, Asia and North and South America. The respondents were asked in a forced choice situation whether the adjective was more descriptive of males or females.

The results showed large differences in all countries surveyed in the perception of what men and women were like. However, even more importantly research supported a broad consensus between countries and cultures on gender stereotypes. Adjectives like active, adventurous and aggressive were associated with males; and affected, affectionate and anxious with females. The consensus in gender stereotypes support these concepts as universal psychological constructs present in all societies. However, some cultural differences were reported. A factor analysis found three meaningful factors labeled favorability, activity and strength. The first factor represented an overall evaluation of the two sexes. While there were no overall differences in male or female favorability in combining scores from all countries, the male stereotype was found to be more favorable in Japan and South Africa, whereas the female stereotype was more favorable in Italy and Peru. From the study it is not clear what cultural or historical factors were responsible for these favorability results. However, on the factor of action orientation males were considered significantly more active. On the third factor of strength there was again a very large mean difference with males scoring higher on the stereotype of being stronger. We can conclude that males and females are within countries attributed very different gender stereotypes and the results showed a remarkable similarity in how these gender distinctions are maintained across cultures.

The extent of the pan-cultural agreement on gender stereotypes is so large that some researchers have suggested that they are the equivalent of psychological universals accepted practically in all societies and by both sexes (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 1992). Such universal stereotypes lead logically to a consideration of an evolutionary basis that originated in anatomical differences and the subsequent historical division of labor. Reproductive success demanded a division of labor, and those of our ancestors who adapted had an evolutionary advantage in survival. Over the eons of time since early human societies these stereotypes have become a part of cultural history internalized for many people.

The sharpness of the gender differentiation depends on cultural values (Hofstede, 1980). Countries that are conservative with hierarchical social structures and with lower socioeconomic development and where education is valued less for women also display more significant demarcation between the sexes. On the other hand countries that value egalitarianism as an ideology, social harmony and less traditional sex role orientation, have lower levels of strict gender stereotypical distinctions. When rescoring the Adjective Check List according the BIG Five Model of Personality males were seen has having higher scores on all traits except agreeableness where females scored higher (Williams, Satterwhite & Best, 1999).

These stereotypes are incorporated at a very early time and Williams and Best found gender stereotypes also present in childhood. Gender stereotypes existed in children in all cultures and were virtually similar to those found for the adult sample. The results suggest that children are inculcated at a very early time in gender stereotypes, in nursery schools, in the home and in other social institutions. Children’s stories and the media also play a role in producing such broad agreement on female and male gender characteristics. The fact that there is cross-cultural agreement in children’s gender stereotypes support the universal nature of these conceptions and the long evolutionary roots of gender based differences. Nevertheless the role of culture in reinforcing sex roles is supported by the research of Albert and Porter (1986) who reported that gender stereotyping become more prevalent with the increased age of children. Others researchers have emphasized the important role of the media in socializing children in gender stereotypes and with the mass media in the past often showing manifestly demeaning stereotypical images of women (Fejes, 1992). However, since the media in the U.S. and Western Europe were confronted by the women’s movement the most blatant and offensive stereotypes have been removed. Of course culture is persistent and some stereotypes still exist in the modern world.

As noted these stereotypic conceptualizations reflect a genetically based physical reality. However, culture plays a role by socializing gender-related practices that evolved over historical time into a sex role ideology that keep gender expectations rigid even when they don’t make sense in the modern world. In the new globalized world of computers women can perform the same work related tasks as men. Women should not be delimited in modern times by a culturally based sex role ideology that grew out of the need for survival in the early history of humanity and the division of labor that placed females in the home. Today women are approaching equity and equality in many areas in the United States and Western Europe and for example in the universities women are in some cases out-competing their male counter parts. This independence in females has led to new relationships between the genders and today only half of adults in the United States get married. What the outcome is for family life is difficult to estimate in the intermediate or long term future.

Date: 2015-01-11; view: 985