The impact of culture on happiness and subjective well-being.

It is difficult to make cross-cultural comparisons in the first instance because translations of relevant concepts are not necessarily accurate and at times difficult. Finding the equivalence of terms in cross-cultural research on happiness and well-being requires more time. However, a different but more serious problem is the culturally based response biases in research. As noted typically respondents from the collectivistic societies of East Asia respond with lower scores on measures of subjective well-being since they are influenced by modesty and culturally influenced views of what the scales represents (Lau, Cummins, & McPherson, 2005). These lower values may represent nothing more than methodological problems from different interpretations of response categories, and therefore not reflect meaningful differences between cultures.

However, happiness is understood within the framework of cultural values. The primary difference between Western cultures compared to Asian or African societies in the focus on the individual versus the group. In Western societies happiness is achieved by meeting self-relevant goals and the social recognition of personal standing. In collectivistic societies happiness is connected to the well-being of one’s family or cultural group (Harper, Guilbaut, Tucker, & Austin, 2007). Happiness cannot be achieved except within the framework of these cultural givens since what is considered a source of happiness in some societies may have little or no affect in others. Oishi and Diener (2001) investigated happiness in respondents that came from European or Asian backgrounds. The participants were asked to list five goals that they desired to accomplish in the coming month. A month later the respondents were asked to rate satisfaction in goal achievement. The sample with European background reported more happiness from the achievement of independent goals, whereas in the Asian sample satisfaction and happiness increased when more interdependent goals were reached. In other words members of Western societies achieve happiness by reaching self-relevant goals, whereas respondents from Asian cultures seek happiness by contributing to social harmony.

Cultures differ greatly in values and behavior and it is therefore logical to expect a cultural impact on subjective well-being. Life experiences are understood within the framework of cultural values, and even very similar experiences may produce different cognitive interpretations and behavioral reactions. Cultural values are often expressed through the medium of religion that is ubiquitous in the world. There are significant differences in the values espoused by religion. Some religions teach acceptance of the conditions of life, and others teach righteous struggle and holy war. Some religions demand monogamy whereas others not only approve of polygamy, but consider it the natural and approved way to live. It is therefore not surprising that religion may have a positive impact on well-being in some cultures, but a negative relationship in others (Lavric & Flere, 2008).

Cultures differ in the level of support offered to the mentally ill and physically disabled that in turn minimize or create stress affecting well-being for patients and families. In some cultures it is considered a shame to have a disabled child, and families must make efforts not to expose that shame to society. In other cultures like Western Europe and the United States society provide many valuable resources for the mentally or physically challenged, and most importantly laws and norms of equal treatment that reduces the psychological burden on the family. However, even within the U.S. there are ethnic differences in the amount of social support that white and Latino families offer for the disabled (Magana & Smith, 2006). The devotion of the extended family is stronger in Latino communities and mothers report less negative consequences from care giving for disabled family members.

Quality of life and well-being must be understood as a consequence of both objective and subjective factors. However, comparisons between cultures are difficult for the reasons discussed above. Comparisons of subjective well-being are difficult considering the interaction of cultural values and objective living standards. Nevertheless measures of subjective well-being are useful in tracking the effectiveness of social interventions in times of great change that is accelerating in the world.

Finally, there are individual factors that influence happiness within cultural frameworks. Happiness fluctuates some because it is also influenced by dispositional variables and personal resources. The temperament of some people makes happiness more or less likely. Temperaments characterized by agreeableness produce more rewarding social acceptance affecting well-being (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Individuals also differ in the level of positive illusions that conflict with reality. Some people believe they can shape future events when these happenings are beyond the individuals’ capacity to control. Some people are just poor in predicting outcomes and consequently make negative decisions affecting happiness (Haybron, 2008).

Date: 2015-01-11; view: 850