Artefactual languages.

Distin (2011) makes a distinction between what she calls natural languages and artefactual representations. Natural language evolved from the need to give immediate expression to our thoughts. The evolution of natural language enabled our ancestors to make more efficient use of their innate cooperative abilities and the representation of their beliefs. The ability to communicate had selective advantages as humans could cooperate better in hunting, gathering or in the development of agriculture. As noted above at times we expand our language knowledge by learning other languages and learn from the linguistic overlap. However natural language is limited by the human capacity for learning and retention and is inadequate to represent all the learning of a society or culture. We must therefore look beyond natural language to other forms of representation.

Artefactual languages evolved in the course of cultural evolution to help us escape from the limitations and bias that is part of natural language use. When humans start to think about how information was represented symbolically the evolution of artefactual languages began. In artefactual languages the priority changed from immediate communication to representation. Alternative symbolic ways of representing information facilitated a more rapid cultural evolution. Artefactual languages including mathematics, music and writing evolved from the need to express complex thought not dependent on the subjectivity of the individual speaker or individual experience. Writing, an artefactual language, is the foundation of cultural development from the earliest symbols displayed in European caves, to representations on the walls of the temples in Egypt, to the use of computers at the present time. Culture’s origin is completely connected to the development of symbolic representation exemplified by writing. Like natural languages artefactual languages shape our understanding of culture, and our ability to evaluate external reality. The variety of cultures and complexity of human interactions are mediated by symbolic representations that reflected the cultural demands for improved communication and effective adaptation.

Artefactual languages separate cultural information from subjectivity and language structures thus opening the possibilities for advances in science and technology. Individual cognition is limited, and can neither receive nor encode all the cultural information acquired over the centuries. Humans think not only about the content of information, but also the means used to send cultural knowledge, and this ability to think at higher metalinguistic levels has largely produced cultural evolution. We are a cooperative species and have not only the ability, but an innate desire to share what we know. Artefactual languages have the great advantage of separating the content of information from the social context. This is a fundamental attribute of humans without which we would be stuck at the level of dogmatic interpretations and believing that the universe revolves around the Earth. The ability to think outside the box is what has powered cultural evolution although dogmatic thinking is still a great inhibitor of progress. Human culture depends on the evolution of applicable information as shared by languages and also by artefactual symbolic communication. Such a representational theory of cultural evolution has explanatory power in a variety of cultural domains (Price, 2007).

Summary

Language is central to an understanding of cultures and co-evolved with other cultural traits. Without language it was not possible for early humans to communicate to larger social networks or solve the complex problems related to ecology and the building of environmental niches. Human language is complex since we can think about the attribution of intent in others. The predisposition to language is hardwired in our brains although the particular language is a product of cultural evolution. Language and other cultural traits co-evolved over thousands of years benefitting from reciprocal contributions. Vertical evolution can be illustrated by phylogenetic trait models, but in cultural evolution horizontal transmission occur frequently between neighboring cultures creating greater complexities in tracing cultural trait development. In order to understand the developments of research in these areas it is important for students to understand the basic linguistic terms used.

Linguistic relativity refers to the influence of language on thinking processes and conceptualizations. The infant by interaction with members of his culture gradually shapes certain language sounds that eventually determine lexical content, the grammatical structure, and the pragmatic rules of the use of language in the social context. Research supports the idea that different language groups produce different conceptualizations of the self and others that are of salient importance in communication. Communication style influenced by culture carries more important meanings than the content of communications. Does the lexical content and grammar of a culture create boundaries for thinking? The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis makes this assertion, and raises the question as to whether we can ever understand deeper meanings when communicating across languages. Language is a representative system that organizes the cultural world and is heritable for following generations. Since culture determine lexical content is also influences our ability to differentiate and communicate cultural nuances. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis receives critical support in several cultural domains where language differences have a direct impact on perceptual and cognitive functioning.

The underlying biological adaptation function of language is demonstrated by the presence of universals in linguistic research. Deaf children can communicate with gestures that are language-like and remarkably similar across countries where it has been studied. Universal function is also demonstrated by aspects of word order found in all languages. Osgood’s work on meaning in the description of objects yielded similar meaning structures in all cultures. Together this research supports our common biological and/or cultural evolution in the past.

Intercultural communication creates important challenges since messages are always understood subjectively and from the perspective of the listener. Therefore interpretations are influenced by ingroup values, by the emotional signals from the nonverbal context of communication, and by cultural stereotypes. These cultural filters and attributions make the accurate interpretation of intercultural communication difficult. Obstacles present in intercultural communication include lexical content when words may have more than one meaning in one of the cultures, and nonverbal gestures that is interpreted differentially dependent on culture. These factors along with stereotyping, ethnocentric attitudes and stress often distort the reception of messages. A primary objective in intercultural communication is to reduce uncertainty. Of particular importance is the moderation of emotional reactions and control of ethnocentric thinking.

We live in a world where the majority speaks more than one language. The affect of globalization has made this trend even more efficacious. The affect of bilingualism can be seen in studies where speakers demonstrate different personality traits dependent on the language spoken. Some have described bilingualism as cultural code switching dependent on the identification of the speaker with cultural stereotypes of the language spoken. Bilingualists benefit from their multiple language exposure that produce greater creativity, cognitive complexity, linguistic sensitivity, and increased ability to learn new languages. The relationship of nonverbal communication to culture is an important research domain. Nonverbal signals are part of any verbal communication and carry important meanings especially of emotional states. Research shows that societies vary in the interpersonal space distance required when communicating, allowing cultures to be described as either a contact or noncontact society.

The Darwinian model of evolution has taken on increased importance in explaining sociocultural and language change and development. Phylogenetic models have been used to reconstruct both cultural history and language development. From this research we can observe that the tree-like branching of culture and the diffusion of traits explain the cultural diversity we observe in the world today. In cultural evolution cultural traits gradually develop and are modified in response to selective pressures. Cultures keep traits that are important to social and ecological adaptation. For example the evolution of cultural traits associated with agriculture in China produced many advantages, improved the competitive fitness of China and led to an integrated empire that dominated neighboring cultures.

Can cultural advantages be reflected in genetic changes? Selective genetic adaptation does occur that produce evolutionary advantages. Lighter skin color of people who live in the northern regions of the world is a selective advantage since it allows for the absorption of more vitamin D from existing sunlight. However, cultural evolution occurs much more rapidly, and is a stronger evolutionary force at this point in history. Disadvantaged cultural groups that compete for similar ecological environments are either excluded or assimilated into the more successful culture. The power of the Western socio-economic model must be seen from this perspective as developing countries are seeking inclusion in trade agreements or in political structure.

The analogy of genetic and cultural evolution is powerful since the conditions required for Darwinian evolution to occur also exist for culture namely the struggle for existence and the presence of heritable cultural trait varieties that provide differential cultural group survival advantages. Cultural stability is created by conformity processes, whereas dysfunctional traits produce stress and change. Some argue that the distinction between genetic and cultural evolution is unnecessary and false since all behavior is biological. Language requires learning, but biological templates create the necessary mechanisms for language development. Phylogenetic models have produced new insights into migration, demography and the history of culture. However, genetic and cultural evolution follows separate evolutionary paths. The extinction of cultural groups through competitive interactions has reduced the variation of cultural traits in the world, a process that has increased with globalization in recent decades. Cultural groups that loose in intercultural completion are dispersed or assimilated into the dominant culture.

Are there limitations on the genetic and cultural co-evolutionary theory? The main difference between the two evolutionary forces is that cultural traits can be transmitted horizontally between neighboring cultural groups. Also, as we noted cultural evolution occur much more rapidly compared to adaptive genetic mutations. These facts place some limits on the usefulness of phylogenetic models. Nevertheless phylogenetic methods have proven useful in tracing the divergence of cultural traditions from branch like population splits caused by migration. In the transmission of heritable cultural traits we find the primary determinant of human behavior affecting the adaptation to ecology. Overtime there is an obvious interdependence between cultural and genetic evolution.

The selection of advantageous cultural traits creates cultural stability. Stability forces counter evolutionary pressure and create barriers for horizontal influences from neighboring cultures. However, our information age has changed these dynamics as people everywhere know how others live elsewhere, and the social media is a force for cultural evolution. Conformity mechanisms are a cultural force for stability, although dysfunctional values will always be under stress. Migration is a stabilizing factor as dissatisfied people look for new opportunities to survive or prosper and the persecuted look for escape from oppression. Migration is therefore a stabilizing factor for the sending country, but not necessarily for the receiving culture. Conformity can stabilize both language and culture for long historical periods. Conformist learning is adaptive since it ensures survival, receives approval by the majority in society, and serves stability by weeding out nonconformist traits and people. On other hand evolutionary change is encouraged when other cultures seek to emulate and imitate successful countries. For example imitation explains the current changes associated with globalization.

The origins of cultural traits have fascinated scientists of many persuasions and produced varying theories. These perspectives often involve a “which came first the chicken or the egg” argument. An example is the debate about whether religion was a driver of agricultural development or conversely whether agricultural development encouraged the leisure and resources to entertain religious issues. The research reported shows that science is always in the process of self-correction, and our minds must always be open when new facts are discovered.

Linguistic evolution is the key to understanding the human journey and the phylogenetic methods have enabled us to reconstruct language development related to kinship going back to the earliest proto languages across thousands of years. The human journey as understood by language changes can be supplemented by new advances in genetic information that traces the human geneographic journey by means of heritable genetic markers from our common origin in Africa. Is there evidence of language evolution? The very presence of 6000 languages and 4300 established religions point to the forces of evolution in language and in sociocultural traits maintained over the ages by conformity and social learning.

Recent research suggests that human culture must be seen as a function of the transmission of information. Whether traits are heritable depends on each generation receiving the appropriate information and having the means to interpret and implement the cultural traits in life. Evolution has been observed in genetics, epigenetics, behavior, and in symbolic changes including language and other symbolic representations. Branch divisions and waves of continuity are models used to explain the divergence of languages over time. Geographic distance is seen as the major factor explaining the diffusion of languages. Migration to distant geographical areas and subsequent isolation produced new languages, whereas wave theory explains language continuity with dialect modification in adjoining geographical territory.

Language evolved from our innate capacities an assertion supported by the presence of language universals in many cultures. Theories have argued that humans are hardwired with a universal grammar applied to any language and that language is an innate biological adaptation. Human language evolution required significant pre-adaptations including the ability to think. As a cooperative species there is a conformity bias present from infancy leading us to recognize human adults as models for imitation in all areas including language.

Contacts with other language groups often create communication barriers. In initial contacts efforts are made to overcome barriers by compromise. Contacts also result in the borrowing of lexical content from other languages a demonstrated by the ubiquitous use of English words and phrases. Grammar is however more resistant to change except when the dominant language influence is total or under conditions of colonization. Knowledge of several languages has many beneficial advantages to knowledge expansion and understanding. Artefactual languages like writing, mathematics, and music evolved to help humans escape from the limitations of bias and subjectivity and to expand the usefulness of natural languages.

Chapter 6

COGNITION: OUR COMMON BIOLOGY AND CULTURAL IMPACT

The psychological constructs that permit thinking and reflection are referred to by the term cognition. Thinking is a product of all the psychological processes that result from sensory inputs and eventually produces cultural knowledge. Our common human biology has provided universal sensory receptors referring to sensations of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Perception is the process that occur after the initial experiences of sensation in particular how sensory reactions are organized and create cultural relevant meaning. In all cultures human beings engage in higher order mental operations represented in language, thinking and reasoning. Problem solving and decision-making abilities emerge out of the cultural meanings produced by the social context.

Date: 2015-01-11; view: 668