The Rise of Humanism

During the Renaissance, literature reflected another important influence: humanism.At this time, the universities of Europe buzzed with new ideas—about the worth and importance of the individual, about the spiritual value of beauty in nature and art, about the power of human reason to decide what was good and right. Those who taught these new ideas were called humanists,because they studied the humanities(art, history, philosophy, and literature; in other words, subjects that were human rather than sacred) and looked to the classics for wisdom and guidance.

English HumanistsErasmus traveled widely throughout Europe, writing and teaching, and made many friends, among them the artist Hans Holbein the Younger and English writer and scholar Sir Thomas More.Like Erasmus, More saw much to criticize in the way the world was being run and believed humans could do better. In 1516, he published his book called Utopia (from the Greek for “no place”), about a perfect society on an imaginary island. In Utopia, there was no poverty or greed—not even private property; everything was shared, and everyone was equal. War and competition were unknown, and people were governed by reason.

Humanists were concerned with classical learning. One of their aims was to educate the sons of nobility to speak and write in Latin, the language of diplomacy and all higher learning. For humanist writers, however, reverence for the classics created a conflict: should they write their own works in Latin or English? Although many wrote in the classical Latin, others urged scholars to improve English by writing ambitious works in it. In any case, the humanist reverence for classics combined with a pride in the English language led to many distinguished translationsthroughout the period, including the Earl of Surrey’stranslation of Virgil’s Aeneid and George Chapman’stranslations of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.

Interestingly, the humanists reflected a fact of life during the Renaissance period—religion was a subject dear to most but agreed upon by few. From the outset, humanism was concerned with Christianity; but while early humanists, such as Sir Thomas More, a Catholic, primarily attacked Luther and the Protestants, later humanists, such as Roger Ascham, were earnest Protestants who attacked a more secular humanism coming out of Italy. These men went on to influence later Christian writers, such as the great John Milton.

The Renaissance

For writers, artists, scientists, and scholars—in fact, for anyone gripped by curiosity or the urge to create—the Renaissancewas an amazing time to be alive. The Renaissance, which literally means “rebirth” or “revival,” was marked by a surge of creative energy and the emergence of a worldview more modern than medieval. It began in Italy in the 14^th c. and rapidly spread north throughout Europe. In England, political instability delayed the advent of Renaissance ideas, but they began to take hold after 1485, when Henry VII took the throne, and reached full flower during the reign of Elizabeth I.

The Renaissance WorldviewAll through the Middle Ages, Europeans had focused their energy on religion and the afterlife, viewing this world primarily as preparation for the world to come. During the time of the Renaissance, people became much more interested in, and curious about, life on earth. A new emphasis was placed on the individual and on the development of human potential. The ideal “Renaissance man” was not a bold and dashing knight or a scholarly monk but a well-rounded person who cultivated his talents to the fullest.

The Renaissance flourished in Elizabethan times, when theaterand literature reached new heights. Even Elizabeth’s successor, James I, contributed to the period’s literary legacy with his commissioning of a new translation of the Bible.With the reign of Puritan Oliver Cromwell and his closing of theaters, however, the period was near its end. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660 marked the official conclusion of the Renaissance period in English history.

A Changing Language: Renaissance EnglishDuring the “great vowel shift” of the 1400s, the pronunciation of most English long vowels changed, and the final e in words like take was no longer pronounced. Yet early printers continued to use Middle English spellings—retaining, for example, the k and e in knave, even though the letters were no longer pronounced. This practice resulted in many of the inconsistent spellings for which modern English is known.

By 1500, Middle English had evolved into an early form of the modern English spoken today. Nevertheless, there are some differences. During the Renaissance, thou, thee, thy, and thine were used for familiar address, while you, your, and yours were reserved for more formal and impersonal situations. Speakers used the verb ending –est or –st with thou (“thou leadest”) and –eth or –th with she and he (“he doth”). They also used fewer helping verbs, especially in questions (“Saw you the bird?”).

UNIT 4. THE RESTORATION PERIOD AND THE 18^TH CENTURY (1660-1798)

Historical Context

KEY IDEA Writers of this era worked in a context of relative political stability and increasing rights under a more limited monarchy.

Date: 2016-03-03; view: 761