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FORMS OF ACADEMIC WRITING

 

Summary

A summary conveys the main idea of a book, an article, a research work etc. However, there are certain points of difference between them.

While summarizing something you should condense the original text so as to represent its major idea – usually in the proportion 1 to 10. However, a summary may comprise a single sentence or even a word if that is enough to convey the general sense of the work.

To start with, identify the author and title of the work. You can also include in parentheses the publication date and publisher. For example:

In Watching the English (London: Hodder and Stoughton Ltd, 2004) Kate Fox, a social anthropologist, gives a comprehensive yet amusing overview of a Briton’s rules of behaviour. This is the fifth of Ms Fox’s most renowned works.

Then condense the content of the work by highlighting its key points. Your summary must be concise but informative enough.

You should avoid writing a too detailed summary. Generally speaking, your goal is a single paragraph of about 100–125 words in length.

In order to condense the original text, you must firstly comprehend and evaluate it. You must grasp its core and then structure the material before you can reduce its meaning to a few sentences. Here are the steps to follow in summarizing.

· In the first place, try to preview the work giving special consideration to the following:

The title usually summarizes what the article/ book is about. A subtitle (or caption), if given, also provides an insight into the major meaning of the original work and thereby can help you to condense it appropriately. The same concerns sub-headlines which the text may contain. Besides, note all the words and phrases given in italics, large print or bold print – these serve to emphasize the most important points too. In the first paragraph(s), the author normally introduces the subject or purpose of the work, whereas the last ones may contain a brief conclusion.

· Read the text searching for general statements, as well as for details/ examples which substantiate these statements. Make notes of what appears to be the key point(s) of the work.

· Focus on the areas which seem to you the most important and try to formulate the main idea of the work. Make sure all the material of the book/ article accords with this idea.

· Get down the main point of the work and its essential supporting details. But do not enlarge on any single aspect of the original text.

· Review your draft, considering the principles of effective writing (unity, coherence, clear sentences etc).

Summarizing a fictional story or novel, start by stating its message, then briefly retell the plot, bearing the message in mind to help you decide which details are essential to include. Anyway, keep your summary factual and objective, do not give your personal opinion of the original work – you are to present only the facts and ideas provided in the summarized text. On the other hand, you shouldn’t use the author’s wording or, so the more, direct quotations from the work. A quotation can be used only by way of illustrating the author’s style or some peculiar term. A proper one-paragraph summary can contain no more than one quote.



Sample

In Watching the English (London: Hodder and Stoughton Ltd, 2004) Kate Fox, a social anthropologist, gives a comprehensive yet amusing overview of a Briton’s rules of conversation and behaviour. This is the fifth of Ms Fox’s most renowned works describing the specifics of the English national character and English society. The book is an in-depth study of qualities that define Englishness, such as humour, empiricism and moderation, social “dis-ease” and fear of intimacy, class consciousness and hypocrisy as a form of politeness. Various aspects of English culture and social behaviour appear to be imbued with hidden, unspoken codes of conduct which cut across class, age, gender, region and other social boundaries, thereby constituting the English national identity.

2. Précis

A more extended summary of a book, report, newspaper article etc, which conveys the main idea of the original is called a précis. The French word précis and the English precise both come from the same Latin verb meaning “to cut short”. “To be precise” is to be accurate, definite, exact, brief and to the point.

A well-written précis should be a serviceable substitute for the original work. The goal is to preserve the core essence of the work in a manner that is both clear and concise. At a maximum, a précis constitutes ONE THIRD (but normally less) of the original. So, compress and clarify a lengthy passage, article, or book, while retaining important concepts, key words, and important data. For example, summarizing a research, the précis should highlight the topic (main thesis) and the purpose of the research, the object/ material of the study, the methods or the general approach used by the researchers, the major results (or insights) gained. It should also include a brief description of the key terms and a conclusion.

Points to remember

- Remove what is superfluous and retain the core essence of the original work. accurately state the main points of the original, omitting nothing important, and include nothing that is minor.

- Keep the balance and proportion of the original work. If, for instance, an article gives 70% of its space to one idea, and 30% to another, your précis should follow the same pattern.

- Express the content of the original work in your own words, do not imitate or stay to close to the author’s individual style. You cannot use direct speech, conversations, dialogues, original stylistic devices or grammar forms like imperative in a précis. These should be paraphrased before being condensed.

- However, do not forget that a précis is NOT a PERSONAL interpretation of the original work or an expression of your opinion of the idea – it is, rather, an exact replica in miniature of the work, in which you express the complete argument! So, you are not supposed to introduce your own judgment or comments.

***

A summary and a précis have much in common. However, there are certain points of difference between them.

· A précis is a close reproduction of the original work in the proportion 1 to 3, while the length of a summary varies depending upon the amount of detail required in it. It may be a single word, a phrase, a sentence, a few sentences, or one (or sometimes more) sentence that is enough to convey the general idea. The normal proportion of a summary, however, is about 1 to 10 of the original.

· Since a summary requires a greater degree of generalization, you should use your own words.

· A summary must have an introduction which clearly states the title, the author’s name, the source from which the text is taken and the subject the summary is concerned with.

· While writing a summary you should avoid paraphrasing, including such phrases as ‘the author says/ states etc’ or ‘the article reports/ comments’ and so on. Instead you are supposed to state directly what the work is concerned with.

 

Paraphrasing is one of the crucial practical skills to master précis/ summary writing.

Paraphrase is the translation of a dialogue or conversation into ordinary prose language. Care should be taken not to confuse it with reported speech which is purely grammatical. Perhaps the main difference between paraphrasing and reported speech is that we do not stick as closely to the wording of the original work in paraphrasing as we do while reporting. That is, in paraphrasing, we express the ideas of the author, not his exact words. So, in appropriate paraphrase, the thoughts and emotions described in the original text should be conveyed in your own words. For this purpose make use of verbs of reporting.

 

Verbs of Reporting

Here is a sample list of some commonly used words and phrases which may help you to interpret your passage clearly and accurately:

to wonder if (why, when, how, etc)

to think/ believe, suppose that…

to be sure/ convinced that…

to complain about/ be discontented with…

to doubt/ deny that…

to challenge/ question smb’s idea/ point/ statement etc

to admit/ acknowledge/ assume that…

to reproach smb for…

to allege/ announce/ claim/ state that…

to suggest that smb should do smth

to offer/ refuse to do smth

to persuade smb to do smth

to argue with smb about smth

to forbid smb to do smth

to suspect smb of smth

to insist on smth

to remind smb of smth

Here are some more tips to help you make appropriate paraphrase:

- Avoid verbs like tell, say, ask, answer which are typical of reported speech.

- Paraphrase conversations if they are essential for your précis.

- When paraphrasing a passage take care to provide proper logical connection of facts and ideas. Make the relationship between the parts of the statement clear to the reader.

- Keep to one tense form, past or present.

-Your speech should be clear and precise about the subject you are discussing, so

1) You often need to identify something: for example, to say exactly what it is, to say what category of things it belongs to, or to explain a term. Here are some verbs and expressions that you can use.

· Identifying and defining things: characterize, be characterized by …, define, delimit, delineate, detail, determine, establish, identify, pinpoint, specify.

E.g.: Medical science may not be able to pinpoint the precise cause of this disease.

· Grouping things in categories: arrange, assign, categorize according to …/ as…, class/ classify as …, fall into …, grade, group into …/ according to…, organize, sort into …/ by …/ according to….

E.g.: There are different ways of categorizing decisions. One useful analysis of decisions is into five categories.

These items fall into the category of luxury goods. The topic falls naturally into three sections.

· Saying exactly what something is or explaining a term: be known as…, be termed…, By… we mean…, may be defined as …, The correct / current term is …/ refers to ….

E.g.: By higher education we mean all courses of a standard beyond GCE A Level or its equivalent.

This law is known as Avogadro’s principle.

The following adjectives are used in saying that categories and definitions are clear: clear, clear-cut, distinct, well-defined; not clear: ambiguous, ill-defined, indistinct, nebulous, obscure, unclear, vague.

2)You may sometimes want to emphasize that something is definitely true. At other times, you may want to say that you are not completely certain about the facts. To express your idea accurately you can use the following words and phrases.

· Emphasizing that something is definite: beyond doubt/ question, undoubtedly, there can be no question/ doubt that…, it cannot be denied that…, it is undeniable, there are no two ways about it.

E.g.: It is beyond question that in the 17th century a distinct change of emphasis had occurred.

· Saying that something is exactly as expected: inevitably, predictably, unsurprisingly, … as predicted/ expected/ foreseen.

E.g.: This proposal predictably caused considerable opposition.

· Saying that something is likely but not definite: conceivably, on balance, evidently, hypothetically, possibly, presumably, probably; it is likely/ feasible/ possible that …, it seems quite probable that …, there are good reasons to believe that … .

E.g.: If market failures can be offset by other policies then, on balance, privatization is likely to be desirable.

· Saying that something is true in most cases: as a rule, by and large, generally speaking, in general, in most cases, normally, on the whole.

E.g.: In general, the solubility of a gas decreases with increasing temperature.

· Saying that something appears to be one thing, but may really be different: allegedly, apparently, in theory, ostensibly, seemingly, theoretically.

E.g.: The second incident allegedly occurred in the spring of 1992.

They had been moved from their traditional homelands, ostensibly in order to protect them against the possibility of an enemy advance.

3)In oral and written speech we often need to evaluate data, ideas or situations and give our opinion of them, apart from just describing them. Here are some groups of adjectives that can be used for this purpose.

· Saying that something is good: appropriate, desirable, encouraging, favourable, positive, proper, right, valuable.

E.g.: Such data is valuable for detecting and monitoring change.

· Saying that something is useful or effective: beneficial, effective, efficient, powerful, productive, satisfactory, useful.

E.g.: This basic technique is effective and computationally simple.

· Saying that something is not good: adverse, disappointing, discouraging, inferior, negative, poor, undesirable, unfavourable, weak.

E.g.: The causes of the disease are uncertain, and attempts to cure it have given poor results.

· Saying that something isnot useful or not effective: defective, deficient, flawed, inadequate, ineffective, unproductive, unsatisfactory.

E.g.: Such theories are based on flawed assumption that it is possible to deter the enemy by controlled use of nuclear weapons.

· Saying that something is significant you show your opinion of its value and importance: crucial, dominant/ dominating, essential, important, interesting, key, major, notable, noteworthy, primary, significant, substantial, topical, vital; of great/ considerable/ topical/ vital importance.

E.g.: It is noteworthy that, of the remaining 58 charged with the crime, only 35 were convicted.

When you say that a person’s work is significant because it is the most important or complete in its area: authoritative, definitive, distinguished, foremost, outstanding, pre-eminent.

E.g.: As Preston’s authoritative biography of Franco demonstrates, there is no real evidence to support this notion.

If the work is significant, because it was the first in its area and introduced important new ideas: formative, ground-breaking, innovative, pioneering, seminal.

E.g.: Much of the discussion focused on Niskanen’s pioneering work.

· Saying that something is not significant: inconsequential, insignificant, minor, negligible, secondary, slight, trivial, unimportant.

E.g.: Estimates of its effect are that it has a negligible impact on the ozone layer.

· When evaluating things as bad, writers often use ‘not’ and an adjective with a positivemeaning, instead of being too direct and using an adjective with a negative meaning. For example, they might say: “The results are not encouraging” rather than “The results are discouraging”.

When evaluating something, writers often avoid using direct expressions such as I believe and I consider. Instead, they use impersonal and indirect expressions such as it seems likely/ probable that…, this may be considered …, it appears …, it has been proved that …, etc.

4)You sometimes need toparaphrase what you have just written or said, for example to explain something by expressing the idea in a different way, or to correct or adjust it. Here are some expressions that can be used.

· Expressing something in a different way: in other words, i.e., that is, that is to say, to clarify/ paraphrase/ restate this, to put it another way.

E.g.: This thinking was grounded in a negative view of needs. That is to say, it tended to focus on what children cannot do rather than what they can do.

· Correcting something: actually, at least, in (actual) fact, in point of fact, to be more exact/ precise, more accurately/ exactly/ precisely, strictly speaking.

E.g.: It expresses direct perception of an event – to be more precise, the possibility of direct perception.

Multilingual families are each multilingual in their own way. At least, there is likely to be considerable diversity in their behaviour.

· Usingvague, informal, or metaphorical language instead of precise and formal: as it were, loosely, so to speak.

E.g.: These constitute,so to speak, the raw materials for effective education.

 

5) Very often your speech relates to questions that need to be proved, for example by setting out the evidence or arguments in support or against a certain idea. Here are some verbs and expressions that you can use.

· Saying that A definitely proves B: confirm, corroborate, demonstrate, establish, prove, substantiate, validate, verify.

E.g.: This finding confirms the need for considerable attention to be paid to public education.

· Saying that A partly proves B, or makes B seem likely: be indicative/ suggestive/ symptomatic of, imply, indicate, lead to the conclusion/ observation that …, provide evidence of …, reflect the fact that…, show, signify, suggest, support.

E.g.: Increases in precipitation over India were indicative of a more intense monsoon circulation in warm years.

· Saying thatB isproved or partly proved byA: be demonstrated/ proved/ shown/ supported/ verified by…, can be seen in …, can be inferred from …

E.g.: The hypothesis can be inferred fromthe previous studies and is evidenced by the fact that more of these plant families are of very wide distribution.

· Saying that A disproves B, or makes B seem unlikely: challenge, contradict, disprove, invalidate, negate, nullify, refute.

E.g.: This study seems to refute the hypothesis that the disease occurs only in older patients.

· Giving your opinion, after discussing the evidence: conclude, deduce, draw/ come to…, reach a/ the conclusion that …, draw the inference that …, infer.

E.g.: For these reasons, we can deduce that potassium is present.

· The following nouns can be used to refer to the thing you prove: argument, assumption, belief, finding, hypothesis, idea, issue, notion, question, theory, thesis.

6)When you quote what someone has said or written, your choice of words depends on whether you agree or disagree with the statement, or whether you simply want to report what the person has said. For this or that purpose you can use the following verbs.

· If you are simply reporting what the person says: comment, conclude, consider, remark, report, state, write.

E.g.: Harding (1980) states that girls seem to do worse than boys when multiple-choice questions are used.

· If you agree with the person: acknowledge, demonstrate, draw attention to …, emphasize, find, indicate, make clear, note, observe, point out, recognize.

E.g.: He acknowledges that technological development in health care is a continuous process.

· If you disagree with the author, or you are not sure that you agree: assert, claim, contend, imply, maintain.

E.g.: He claims specifically that this is because writing itself has a dual function.

· If you are reporting that the author is not sure: conjecture, hypothesize, postulate, predict, propose, speculate, suggest, surmise, theorize.

E.g.: Hunt suggests that conflict is constructive, when its effect is to introduce different solutions to problems.

· If you are reporting the person’s reaction to some other statement: accept agree, argue, concede, concur, contradict, counter, deny, disagree, object, rebut, refute.

E.g.: She counters this by pointing out that both techniques have a number of disadvantages.

You can show that you agree or disagree with the statement you quote through other choices of wording. For example, as Smith argues means that you agree, but while/ although/ despite/ notwithstanding Smith… means that you disagree. The same is possible through your choice of tenses. For example, Smith argues … means that you are simply reporting what Smith says, but Smith argued… suggests that you disagree, or that Smith has been proved wrong. To report a writer without giving your own opinion, you can use phrases such as according to Smith, in Smith’s view/ opinion, from Smith’s standpoint etc.

 

7)You often need to state how one thing is related to another, or to say if an idea or fact is relevant to what you are talking about. Here are some groups of adjectives and phrases that you can use.

· When A and B are related: allied, associated, cognate, connected, involved, linked, related.

E.g.: The PGC gene is linked to the HLA cluster.

· When elements fit togetherand seem toform a single unit: coherent, cohesive, consistent, harmonious, holistic, integrated, orderly, seamless, unified.

E.g.: In primary schools learning will be seamless and music will fit naturally into the programme of activities.

· When A and B are closely relatedandcannot be separated: bound up, closely connected, inextricably linked, inseparable, integral, interconnected, interdependent, interrelated, interwoven, intimately involved/ connected.

E.g.: The political and economic factors are inseparable.

Bourgeois identity was fundamentally bound up with nationalist ideology.

· When A and B are not related: discrete, distinct, not associated/ connected/ linked, separate, unconnected, unrelated.

E.g.: These species showed great fluctuations in fruit production and this was apparently unconnected with weather.

· When something is relevant: applicable, apposite, apt, germane, pertinent, relevant, to the point.

E.g.: It seemed apt that the winning goal was scored by the captain.

None of them provided information pertinent to the accident investigation.

· When something is not relevant: beside the point, extraneous, inapplicable, inapposite, inappropriate, irrelevant, unconnected.

E.g.: The standard spending assessment is based on irrelevant data.

 


1 Hoover – a make of vacuum-cleaners

1 Maternity benefit/ allowance – (in Britain) money provided by the government to a woman before and after the birth of her child if she doesn’t receive maternity pay; (Statutory) maternity pay (SMP) – money paid to a woman by her employer before and after the birth of her child if she has worked for that employer for more than six months (LDC).

 

1 In Europe, the basic types of insurance are made mandatory by law. As a result, for example, the number of Europeans without health insurance is very small, other than in the US.

2 FICA (Federal Insurance Contributions Act) – money which is taken from your pay by the government to be used for social security.

 

1 In continental Europe, welfare states are also facing similar challenges in recent years, as the population is aging and the number of contributors dwindling, while there are more and more beneficiaries.

1 The paragraph is a basic writing unit for organizing your ideas and for grouping your sentences.


Date: 2016-01-14; view: 1285


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