Flu Virus's Secrets Revealed

Abstract

The 1918 virus left young adults worst hit. An experiment to reconstruct the deadly 1918 flu virus has given a new insight into how the infection took hold. Scientists discovered a severe immune system reaction was triggered when mice were infected with the recreated virus. The US team believe the extreme immune response could have provoked the body to begin killing its own cells, making the flu even deadlier. The study, published in Nature, may aid the hunt for new treatments. The 1918 pandemic took about 50 million lives.

ARTICLE

BBC, London, Thursday, Sept. 28, 2006-

The devastating [1918 Spanish flu] infection, which is thought to have originated in birds, left young adults worst hit.

Scientists in the US have reconstructed the H1N1 virus in a bid to better understand how it became such an effective killer - and to also bolster knowledge in the face of the current H5N1 bird flu threat.

The researchers infected mice with the recreated influenza virus.

Through functional genomic analysis, they discovered that the mice's immune systems responded fiercely to the infection and remained active until the animals' deaths several days later.

At the same time, the animals also suffered the severe lung disease that is characteristic of the virus.

Understanding H5N1

Dr John Kash, lead author of the study and assistant professor of microbiology at the University of Washington, said: "What we think is happening is that the host's inflammatory response is being highly activated by the virus, and that response is making the virus much more damaging to the host.

"The host's immune system may be overreacting and killing off too many cells, and that may be a key contributor to what makes this virus more pathogenic."

Dr Christopher Basler, a co-author from Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, said: "Our next step is to repeat these experiments, but deconstruct what the immune system is doing so that we can understand why it is reacting so strongly, yet failing to fight the infection."

The researchers said understanding how the virus worked would help in the fight against influenza.

Dr Basler said: "This could help us develop more targeted therapies to combat pathogenic infections, including different types of influenzas or perhaps avian influenza."

Paul Hunter, professor of health protection from the University of East Anglia, UK, said: "People who have died from the current form of bird flu have died in the same sort of fashion as the people who died during the 1918 pandemic. It is an extraordinarily unpleasant death.

"Clearly, the difference between the virus now and the one around in 1918 is that the current one has yet to develop the ability to spread swiftly from person to person.

Quote from a fool... It is very important to study the 1918 flu to understand the current avian flu virus /Paul Hunter/

Note: A sure sign of insanity is to repeat devastating behavior. Ingri Cassel, Presiden of Vaccination Liberation, and Dr. Leonard Horowitz, entirely disagree with Paul Hunter's hypocritical rationale. An responsible scientist would weigh the risks more intelligently, consider history, and reality. Dr. Horowitz believes it is absolute madness to reconstruct such lethal viruses that present humanity with unprecedented outbreak risks.

Moreover, this study and publication in Nature additionally implicates vaccinations, with their inoculations of foreign genetic materials and "immune boosters," as a leading cause of modern immunological meltdowns and our current epidemics of autoimmune diseases that are occurring by the same mechanisms discussed in this article.

Contact: Ms. Cassel at:

(208)255-2307, (208) 765-8421 vaclib@dmi.net

Davis, R.A. The Spanish Flu. New York: Palgrave Macmillan; August 2013, 272 pp.

DOI: 10.1057/9781137339218; ebook ISBNs: 9781137339218 PDF http://www.palgraveconnect.com/pc/doifinder/10.1057/9781137339218

Wolfe, Nathan. The Viral Storm: The Dawn of a New Pandemic Age. Times Books 2011 320

Honigsbaum, M. Living with Enza: The Forgotten Story of Britain and the Great Flu Pandemic of 1918. 2008, 256 pp.

Johnson, N. Britain and the 1918-19 Influenza Pandemic: A Dark Epilogue [1 ed.] Routledge Studies in the Social History of Medicine. Routledge 2006, 288 pp.

Barry, J.M. The Great Influenza: The story of the deadliest pandemic in history [Revised]. Penguin Books 2005, 546 pp.

Crosby, A.W. America's Forgotten Pandemic. The Influenza of 1918. (1989) = reissue of Epidemic and Peace (1976); || 2nd edition - 2003

Phillips, H. The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918-19: New Perspectives. 2001, 224 pp.

Kolata, Gina Bari. Flu. The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus that Caused It. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux 1999, 330 pp.|| Touchstone Jan 2001. 352 pp.

Iezzoni, Lynette. Influenza 1918: The worst epidemic in American history. New York, TV Books, L.L.C. 1999

Collier, R. The Plague of the Spanish Lady: The Influenza Pandemic of 1918-1919. Macmillan & Atheneum 1974, 376 pp.|| republished Allison & Busby 1996.

Van Hartesveldt, F.R. The 1918-1919 Pandemic of Influenza. The Urban Impact in the Western World, Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press 1992, 204 pp.

Hoehling, A.A. The Great Epidemic. Boston: Little Brown 1961. 217 pp.

1958 For an anxiety aroused about a recurrence of a 1918-type disaster, a manuscript giving a global account of the Spanish flu, and intended for publication on its 40th anniversary in 1958, was put on hold as 'No publisher in his senses would have dared to face charges of frightening the public still further than it had already been by the newspaper reports.'

Report and Handbook of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago for Years 1911 to 1918 inclusive

Dr. John Dill Robertson Report of the Department of Health of the City of Chicago; August 1, 1919

http://www.influenzaarchive.org/browse/titles/a.html || Permalink: http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.7510flu.0016.157

Johnson, N. P.A.S. and Mueller, J. Updating the accounts: global mortality of the 1918-1920 "Spanish" influenza pandemic. Bull. Hist. Med. 2002, 76, 105-15.

Eyler, J.M. De Kruif 's Boast: Vaccine Trials and the Construction of a Virus. Bull. Hist. Med., 2006, 80, 417-20.

Anne Hardy, Straight Back to Barbarism': Antityphoid Inoculation and the Great War, 1914, Bull. Hist. Med., 2000, 74, 265-90.

http://www.influenzaarchive.org/

http://influenza.sph.unimelb.edu.au/

http://www.abovetopsecret.com/

http://www.whale.to/v/spanish_flu.html

http://www.freedom-school.com/health/vaccines-learn-from-history.html

http://www.vaclib.org/

Driving Towards Disaster: The Story Thus Far: The Great Pandemic and Quarantine - Ron Foster. Createspace (USA) 2011, 118 pp.

The total number of American soldiers killed by the flu pandemic exceeded those killed in the actual combat. The number of soldiers killed by the flu pandemic was about 57,460, while those killed in combat were about 50,280. The United States military was one of the hardest hit institutions by the influenza whereby in one ten-week period in 1918, over 43,000 soldiers died from the pandemic (Frost, 1920). The total number of Americans killed by the flu pandemic was over 675,000, a figure that exceeds the fatalities in the Civil War, the First and Second World War the Korean and Vietnam wars in addition to Iraq war that in total killed about 423,000 (David &Peter 2007).

THE 1918 INFLUENZA EPIDEMIC WAS A VACCINE-CAUSED DISEASE

E. McBean (Vaccination The Silent Killer p28) http://www.otherhealth.com/homeopathy-list-discussion/5986-bird-flu-1918-flu-articles.html

Very few people realize that the worst epidemic ever to hit America, the Spanish Influenza of 1918 was the after effect of the massive nation-wide vaccine campaign. The doctors told the people that the disease was caused by germs. Viruses were not known at that time or they would have been blamed. Germs. bacteria and viruses, along with bacilli and a few other invisible organisms are the scapegoats which the doctors like to blame for the things they do not understand. If the doctor makes a wrong diagnosis and treatment, and kills the patient, he can always blame it on the germs, and say the patient didn't get an early diagnosis and come to him in time.

If we check back in history to that 1918 flu period, we will see that it suddenly struck just after the end of World War I when our soldiers were returning home from overseas. That was the first war in which all the known vaccines were forced on all the servicemen. This mish-mash of poison drugs and putrid protein of which the vaccines were composed, caused such widespread disease and death among the soldiers that it was the common talk of the day, that more of our men were being killed by medical shots than by enemy shots from guns. Thousands were invalided home or to military hospitals, as hopeless wrecks, before they ever saw a day of battle. The death and disease rate among the vaccinated soldiers was four times higher than among the unvaccinated civilians. But this did not stop the vaccine promoters. Vaccine has always been big business, and so it was continued doggedly.

It was a shorter war than the vaccine-makers had planned on, only about a year for us, so the vaccine promoters had a lot of unused, spoiling vaccines left over which they wanted to sell at a good profit. So they did what they usually do, they called a meeting behind closed doors, and plotted the whole sordid program, a nationwide (worldwide) vaccination drive using all their vaccines, and telling the people that the soldiers were coming home with many dread diseases contracted in foreign countries and that it was the patriotic duty of every man, woman and child to get "protected" by rushing down to the vaccination centers and having all the shots.

Most people believe their doctors and government officials, and do what they say. The result was, that almost the entire population submitted to the shots without question, and it was only a matter of hours until people began dropping dead in agony, while many others collapsed with a disease of such virulence that no one had ever seen anything like it before. They had all the characteristics of the diseases they had been vaccinated against, the high fever, chills, pain, cramps, diarrhea, etc. of typhoid, and the pneumonia like lung and throat congestion of diphtheria and the vomiting, headache, weakness and misery of hepatitis from the jungle fever shots, and the outbreak of sores on the skin from the smallpox shots, along with paralysis from all the shots, etc.

The doctors were baffled, and claimed they didn't know what caused the strange and deadly disease, and they certainly had no cure. They should have known the underlying cause was the vaccinations, because the same thing happened to the soldiers after they had their shots at camp. The typhoid fever shots caused a worse form of the disease which they called para-typhoid. Then they tried to suppress the symptoms of that one with a stronger vaccine which caused a still more serious disease which killed and disabled a great many men. The combination of all the poison vaccines fermenting together in the body, caused such violent reactions that they could not cope with the situation. Disaster ran rampant in the camps. Some of the military hospitals were filled with nothing but paralyzed soldiers, and they were called war casualties, even before they left American soil. I talked to some of the survivors of that vaccine onslaught when they returned home after the war, and they told of the horrors, not of the war itself, and battles, but of the sickness at camp.

The doctors didn't want this massive vaccine disease to reflect on them, so they, agreed among themselves to call it Spanish Influenza. Spain was a far away place and some of the soldiers had been there, so the idea of calling it Spanish Influenza seemed to be a good way to lay the blame on someone else. The Spanish resented having us name the world scourge on them. They knew the flu didn't originate in their country.

20,000,000 died of that flu epidemic, worldwide, and it seemed to be almost universal - or as far away as the vaccinations reached. Greece and a few other countries which did not accept the vaccines were the only ones which were not hit by the flu. Doesn't that prove something?

At home (in the U.S.) the situation was the same; the only ones who escaped the influenza were those who had refused the vaccinations. My family and 1 were among the few who persisted in refusing the high pressure sales propaganda ,and none of us had the flu - not even a sniffle, in spite of the fact that it was all around us, and in the bitter cold of winter. Everyone seemed to have it. The whole town was down sick and dying. The hospitals were closed because the doctors and nurses were down with the flu. Everything was closed, schools, businesses, post office - everything. No one was on the streets. It was like a ghost town. There were no doctors to care for the sick, so my parents went from house to house doing what they could to help the stricken in any way they could. They spent all day and part of the night for weeks, in the sick rooms, and came home only to eat and sleep. If germs or viruses, bacteria, or any other little organisms were the cause of that disease, they had plenty of opportunity to latch onto my parents and "lay them low" with the disease which had prostrated the world. But germs were not the cause of that or any other disease, so they didn't "catch" it. I have talked to a few other people since that time, who said they escaped the 1918 flu, so I asked if they had the shots, and in every case, they said they had never believed in shots and had never had any of them. Common sense tells us that all those toxic vaccines all mixed up together in people, could not help but cause extreme body-poisoning - and poisoning of some kind or another is usually the cause of disease.

Whenever a person coughs or sneezes, most people cringe, thinking that the germs are being spread around in the au and will attack people. There is no need to fear those germs any more, because that is not the way colds are developed. Germs can't live apart from the cells (host) and can't do harm anyway, even if they wanted to. They have no teeth to bite anyone, no poison pouches like snakes, mosquitoes or bees, and do not multiply, except in decomposed substances, so they are helpless to harm. As stated before, their purpose is useful, not destructive.

The 1918 flu was the most devastating disease we ever had, and it brought forth all the medical bag of tricks to quell it, but those added drugs, all of which are poisons, only intensified the over-poisoned condition of the people, so the treatments actually killed more than the vaccines did.

Vaccines in use during WWI

Besides smallpox vaccine, there is a history of typhoid vaccines, plague vaccines, diphtheria, rabies vaccine, tetanus antitoxin

http://www.who.int/vaccines-diseases.../history.shtml

# 1885 Rabies

# 1897 Plague

http://www.worldpsychology.net/World.../marriage8.htm

1895 Diptheria vaccination program begins. Over the period lasting until 1907, 63,249 cases of diptheria were treated with anti-toxin. Over 8,900 died, giving a fatality rate of 14%. Over the same period, 11,716 cases were not treated with anti-toxin, of which 703 died, giving a fatality rate of 6%.

1919 Diptheria vaccinations injure 60 and kill 10 in Texas.

http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer...y265526733.asp

But US Army records show that seven men dropped dead after being accinated.

A report from US Secretary of War Henry L Stimson not only verified these deaths but also stated that there had been 63 deaths and 28,585 cases of hepatitis as a direct result of yellow fever vaccination during only six months of the war.

That was only one of the 14 to 25 shots given to recruits.

Army records also reveal that after vaccination became compulsory in the US Army in 1911, not only did typhoid increase rapidly but all other vaccinal diseases increased at an alarming rate.

After America entered the war in 1917, the death rate from typhoid vaccination rose to the highest point in the history of the US Army.

The deaths occurred after the shots were given in sanitary American hospitals and well-supervised army camps in France, where sanitation had been practised for years.

The report of the Surgeon-General of the US Army shows that during 1917 there were admitted into the army hospitals 19,608 men suffering from anti-typhoid inoculation and vaccinia.

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http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-35678

Tetanus

from the medicine, history of article

The other great hazard of war that was brought under control in World War I was tetanus. This was achieved by the prophylactic injection of tetanus antitoxin into all wounded men. The serum was originally prepared by the bacteriologists Emil von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato in 1890–92, and the results of this first large-scale trial amply confirmed its efficacy. ...

In 1897 the English bacteriologist Almroth Wright introduced a vaccine prepared from killed typhoid bacilli as a preventive of typhoid. Preliminary trials in the Indian army produced excellent results, and typhoid vaccination was adopted for the use of British troops serving in the South African War. Unfortunately, the method of administration was inadequately

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/q...&dopt=Citation

South Med J. 2000 Aug;93(8):763-7. Related Articles, Links

'Bacilli and bullets': William Osler and the antivaccination movement.

Greenberg SB.

Department of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.

Public discourse concerning current vaccination recommendations has dramatically increased. The current battle is not new, having had a lengthy foreshadowing during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Over a 30-year period, a concerted effort to limit the use of smallpox vaccine grew at the very time typhoid vaccines were being developed and advocated for widespread prevention. As a long time advocate for widespread smallpox vaccination and a supporter of the newly tested typhoid vaccine, Sir William Osler entered the public debate at the beginning of World War I. Osler was asked to address the officers and men in the British army on the need for typhoid vaccination. His speech entitled "Bacilli and Bullets" outlined the medical reasons for getting inoculated against typhoid. Osler's strong support for typhoid vaccination of the British troops was met by opposition in Parliament but not by most of the troops. Osler's arguments in support of vaccination failed to respond to the concept of "conscientious objection," which was central to the antivaccinationists' argument. Similar arguments are being propounded by current antivaccination groups.

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http://www.smallpox.army.mil/message...ll.asp?cID=152

From 1777 to today, vaccines protected American troops from dangerous infections. Typhoid vaccine reduced typhoid casualties from 20,000 in Spanish-American War of 1898 to just 1,500 in World War I.

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http://www.findarticles.com/p/articl...9/ai_103382403

"In 1899 during the Boer War, the British developed the typhoid vaccine. As history has shown, people are usually opposed to vaccines, and the opposition to the typhoid vaccine grew among the British Army troops. Opposition personnel even boarded transport ships in Southampton Harbor and threw the typhoid vaccine into the water. As a result, the British Army made the typhoid vaccine optional and only 14,000 soldiers volunteered to take it. During the Boer War itself, 58,000 British troops contracted typhoid fever and 9,000 needlessly died from the disease. Among those vaccinated, only 2 percent became infected, and they survived. The overall result, however, was that the British lost the Boer War. But a lesson had been learned; in 1914 during World War 1,97 percent of the British troops opted to take the typhoid vaccine."

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http://www.brainyhistory.com/events/...870_57599.html

August 17, 1870 in History

Frederick Russell, developed 1st successful typhoid fever vaccine

http://www.mnmed.org/publications/MN...ry/Blanck.html

Published monthly by the Minnesota Medical Association

February 2002/Volume 85

The History of Immunization in the U.S. Armed Forces

For centuries, the U.S. military has led the charge against infectious disease.

"Even before the Spanish-American War, the new science of bacteriology was marching on. In Paris in 1898, Fernand Widal showed that the serum from a recovered patient would cause typhoid bacteria to clump. From that came the Widal test, the first serodiagnosis.

In Germany in 1896, Richard Pfeiffer demonstrated that cholera bacilli would agglutinate in vivo as well as in guinea pig peritoneum, which suggested to him and Elmo Wright in England that perhaps dead bacilli could produce an antibody response. This understanding led, in 1896, to the development of a typhoid vaccine, which was used by the British during the Boer War. Lt. Col. William Leishman of England continued this research, developing standard methods of production and performing statistically sound epidemiological studies, which by 1908 showed that two shots of typhoid vaccine gave excellent protection.

In 1908, U.S. Army Surgeon General Robert O’Reilly decided that the U.S. Army needed to study Leishman’s vaccine. He sent Capt. Frederick Russell to England to study with Leishman and then to learn Pfeiffer’s methodology in Germany. Russell returned to the Army Medical School laboratories in Washington, D.C., and began to make vaccines with the combination of German and English methods.

In 1911, Army Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. Leonard Wood (who began his army career as a medical officer) ordered that the Army be immunized and that the immunizations be recorded. So from 1911 on, the Army and Navy personnel were immunized against typhoid fever. This made a critical difference in the health of the military personnel. The high rates of morbidity and mortality during the Spanish-American War in 1898 (from typhoid) faded to essentially nothing by World War I."

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http://muse.jhu.edu/cgi-bin/access.c...ssion=23645538

Hardy, Anne, Dr ""Straight back to Barbarism": Antityphoid Inoculation and the Great War, 1914"

Bulletin of the History of Medicine - Volume 74, Number 2, Summer 2000, pp. 265-290

The Johns Hopkins University Press

Excerpt

On 27 August 1914, just three weeks after the outbreak of the Great War, Sir William Osler, Regius Professor of Medicine at Oxford University, wrote a letter to the Times, in which he urged the necessity of compulsorily vaccinating British troops against typhoid. "In war," he pressed, "the microbe kills more than the bullet," and he reminded his readers that more men had died of dysentery and typhoid in the Boer War than had died in action. 1 Osler's plea was supported, in the first week of September, by letters from Sir Lauder Brunton, an acknowledged leader of the medical profession, and Sir Almroth Wright, head of the Inoculation Department at St Mary's Hospital, London, and a pioneer of antityphoid vaccine. 2 On 28 September Wright wrote again, arguing the case for compulsory vaccination at far greater length. "An army going on active service," he stated, "goes from the sanitary conditions of civilization straight back to those of barbarism. It goes out to confront dangers which have, in settled communities, been so completely extinguished as to have passed almost out of mind." 3 [End Page 265]

On the face of it, these letters may be read as a reflection of medical altruism, of concern that governmental and military authorities should take advantage of the latest developments of modern medicine in protecting their armies and the wider war effort from the ravages of disease--but the reality was less prosaic, less disinterested, and considerably more complicated. Behind these letters lay a continuing tension between the British medical community's attempts to gain acceptance for the perceived benefits of immunization, and the political consensus and popular sensitivities established within the wider social context of British liberal adjustment to a modernizing industrial society. The context of war, moreover, sharpened a parallel...

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http://nobelprize.org/medicine/articles/behring/

The Introduction of Serum Therapy

The first successful therapeutic serum treatment of a child suffering from diphtheria occurred in 1891. Until then more than 50,000 children in Germany died yearly of diphtheria. During the first few years, there was no successful breakthrough for this form of therapy, as the antitoxins were not sufficiently concentrated. Not until the development of enrichment by the bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) along with a precise quantification and standardization protocol, was an exact determination of quality of the antitoxins presented and successfully developed. Behring subsequently decided to draw up a contract with Ehrlich as the foundation of their future collaboration. They organized a laboratory under a railroad circle (Stadtbahnbogen) in Berlin, where they could then obtain the serum in large amounts by using large animals – first sheep and later horses.

In 1892, Behring and the Hoechst chemical and pharmaceutical company at Frankfurt/Main, started working together, as they recognized the therapeutic potential of the diphtheria antitoxin. From 1894, the production and marketing of the therapeutic serum began at Hoechst. Besides many positive reactions, there was also noticeable criticism. Resistance, however, was soon put aside, due to the success of the therapy.

The Marburg Years

Behring was given the opportunity to start a university career through one of the leading officers (Ministerialrat) of the Prussian Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs, Friedrich Althoff (1839-1908), who wanted to improve the control of epidemics in Prussia by supporting bacteriological research. After a short period as professor at the University of Halle-Wittenberg, Behring was recruited by Althoff to take over the vacant chair in hygiene at Philipps Marburg University on April 1, 1895. His appointment as full professor followed shortly thereafter against the will of the faculty, who besides all of Behring's outstanding discoveries, wanted a university lecturer who would broadly represent the field. However, Althoff rejected all counterproposals and Behring took over as Director of the Institute of Hygiene at Marburg. His position included giving lectures for hygiene and concurrently held a teaching contract in the history of medicine. In 1896, the Marburg Institute of Hygiene moved to a building on a road nearby Pilgrimstein Road, previously the Surgery Clinic. Behring divided the Institute into two departments, a Research Department for Experimental Therapy and a Teaching Department for Hygiene and Bacteriology. He remained Director of the Institute until his retirement as professor in May 1916.

Scientific Contacts

Behring belonged to a scientific discussion group called "The Marburg Circle" (das Marburger Kränzchen), whose other members were the zoologist Eugen Korschelt (1858-1946), the surgeon Paul Friedrich (1864-1916), the botanist Arthur Meyer (1850-1922), the physiologist Friedrich Schenk (1862-1916), the pathologist Carl August Beneke (1861-1945) and the pharmacologist August Gürber (1864-1937). They often met at Behring's home where they had rounds of vivid and prolific scientific discussions.

Active Protective Vaccination against Diphtheria

Old vials (1897 and 1906) with hand-written labels.

Photo: Courtesy of Aventis Behring

The therapeutic serum developed by Behring prevented diphtheria for only a short period of time. In 1901, Behring, therefore, for the first time, used a diphtheria innoculation of bacteria with reduced virulence. With this active immunization he hoped to help the body also produce antitoxins. As a supporter of the humoral theory of immune response, Behring believed in the long-term protective action of these antitoxins found in serum. It is well-established knowledge today that active vaccination stimulates the antitoxin (antibody) producing cells to full function.

The development of an active vaccine took a few years. In 1913, Behring went public with his diphtheria protective agent, T.A. (Toxin-Antitoxin). It contained a mixture of diphtheria toxin and therapeutic serum antitoxin. The toxin was meant to cause a light general response of the body, but not to harm the person who is vaccinated. In addition, it was designed to provide long-term protection. The new drug was tested at various clinics and was proven to be non-harmful and effective.

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http://nobelprize.org/medicine/articles/behring/

Tetanus Therapeutic Serum during World War I

In 1891, tetanus serum was introduced considerably more quickly in clinical practices than the diphtheria serum. The Agricultural Ministry supported research efforts to develop a therapeutic agent against tetanus to protect agriculturally valuable animals. The large amounts of serum required were obtained through the immunization of horses. However, there was no substantial clinical testing on humans; this led the Military Administration to accept it only on a small scale at the beginning of World War I.

During the first months of the war, this restraint led to massive losses of human lives. Also, after the distribution of the tetanus antitoxins in the military hospitals, many futile attempts at therapy were noted. At the end of 1914, as a result of Behring's constructive assistance, the injection of serum was established as preventing disease. Starting in April 1915, the mistakes in dosage and the shortage of supplies were overcome and the numbers of sick fell dramatically. Behring was declared "Saviour of the German Soldiers" and was awarded the the Prussian Iron Cross medal.

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http://www.vaccines.army.mil/default.../minidv&dID=43

In 1897, Nocard demonstrated the protective effect of passively transferred antitoxin, and passive immunization in humans was used during World War I.

http://www.mmhc.com/altc/displayArti...leID=altcac407

Passive immunization was used during World War I

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History of Plague Vaccines

Killed bacteria have been used in plague vaccines since 1896

http://www.vnh.org/MedAspChemBioWar/...m#immunization

The first plague vaccine, consisting of killed whole cells, was developed by Russian physician Waldemar M. W. Haffkine, working in India in 1897.

http://www.vnh.org/MedAspChemBioWar/...m#immunization

Plague vaccines have been used with varying effectiveness since the late nineteenth century.

http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg...43930?v=glance

Yersin went on to discover a vaccine for the plague, which he began administering in India in 1898.

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http://americanhistory.si.edu/polio/...e/history2.htm

As more immunizing agents became available, people saw the benefit of immunizing large groups, such as soldiers. During World War I, they were vaccinated against diphtheria

Also a history of Biological Warfare in WWI

Dr Anton Dilger, a noted German-American Physician, established a small biological agent production facility at his northwest Washington, DC home. Using cultures of Bacillus Anthracis (Anthrax) and Pseudomonas Mallei Glanders) supplied by the Imperial German government, Dilger produced an estimated liter or more of liquid agent. He reportedly passed the agent and a standard inoculation device to dock workers in Baltimore who used them to infect a reported 3500 horses, mules and cattle destined for the Allied troops who were waging World War 1. Several Hundred military personnel were infected as well.

"That was only one of the 14 to 25 shots given to recruits."

"After the war, this was one of the vaccines used to protect a panic-stricken world from the soldiers returning from WWI battlefronts infected with dangerous diseases. (TYPHOID)...........[this article says the public got this....Sheri]

http://www.vaclib.org/news/vaccinenotflu.htm

FROM THE IRISH EXAMINER

Source:

http://www.examiner.ie/pport/web/opi...GR66i1Msgdq-nXlDAyFE.asp

08/05/03

Date: 2016-01-03; view: 693