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Nature of semantic change

A necessary condition of any semantic change, no matter what its cause, is some connection, some association between the old meaning and the new. There are two kinds of association involved as a rule in various semantic changes namely: a) similarity of meanings, and b) contiguity of meanings.

Metaphor & metonymy

Phraseological units as compared to words & sentences

Ph units – non-motivated W-groups that can’t be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units

Words

Both Ph U & words

1. convey a single concept

2. ready-made units

3. stable

4. perform the same function

5. possess structural unity

Ph units are non-motivated

ý êîò íàïëàêàë (PH U) = ìàëî (W)

ñ ãóëüêèí íîñ

Sentences

Ph U don’t possess

1.predication (relationship bw the subj & the predicate)

2.structural freedom

S-ces possess certain str-l freedom – W-order + some components can be changed.

Ph Us (their majority) are str-lly & gram-lly invariable. Restriction in substitution, in introducing additional elements. Gr-ly # find fault with smb

Both

1.possess semantic unity but in a dif degree

2.Consist of Ws

Ph U convey a single concept & in s-ces each component stands for a separate concept

11. The complex units of w-b: w-b cluster, row, category

Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary.

A der row/setis a group of words, built according to the same pattern.

arm, hand, head + less – share the same pattern: N + suf > Adj. If smth happens once, it’s likely to be repeated, analogy works.

Der cluster is a complex unity of words with the same root morpheme they are related in meaning, but are built after a number of patterns, which are different. The depth of the cluster shows the number of the steps, the degree of derivation. The volume of the cluster – the number of derivatives in a cluster. Some words in a cluster are more distant from the initiative, what unites them is the root.

1 degree: brother-

to brother brother-in-law brotherless

stepbrother brotherlike

brotherlessness (a derivative of the 2nd degree/ step)

 

This method was introduced by Soboleva.

Sometimes synchr-ly we can’t say that words belong to the same cluster, but diachr-ly/ hist-ly we can

# hand – handsome

come – comely

We can’t restore the relationship, not a der. cluster, only etymol. connection.

Derivational category is a broader term, it unites patterns of different kinds, but having one general meaning.

Collectivity – dom, age, hood, ship

Agentivity – er, ist, ant, ess, ster, ette

≈ 13 categories

12. The functional aspect of w-b system: productivity and activity. The main means of w-b in English + p.41

Some of the ways of forming ws in present day E can be resorted to for the creation of new ws(occasional ws or nonce-ws – after familiar patterns # lungful of smoke) whenever the occasion demands-these are called productive ways of forming ws. It’s the ability to make new ws which all who knows E find no difficulty in understanding. Degrees of Pr: 1) highly prod (affixes (-ful) or deriv patterns-a regular meaningful arrangement of immediate constituents which can be expressed by a formula denoting the part of speech lexical-semantic class and individual semantics); conversion (window-to window); abbreviation) 2) semi-productive (artificial creations; aff;-ic;-ain)) 3) non-productive (interchange; aff:-dom,-hood). Activity-the ability of an affix to produce new ws, in particular occasional ws or nonce-ws. The suff –er is regarded both as a productive and as an active one: on one hand the e w-stock possesses hundreds of nouns containing this suff (driver, teacher), on the other hand this suff in the pattern v+-er=N is freely used to coin an unlimited number of nonce-ws denoting active agents (äåéñòâ ñóôô) (interrupter, respecter). The suff –ful is regarded as a productive one but not as an active one because there hundreds of adjectives with this suff (beautiful, hopeful, useful), but not new ws seem to b e built with its help.



Productivity – quantitative feature (-er→N)

N+ian—Adj (semi-productive, active) BUT Russian - íàöèîíàëüíîñòü

Are not synonyms but are interconnected

 

13. Affixation and prefixation in contemporary E. + p.55

 

1) according to the class of words they preferably form.

2) as to the type of lexical-grammatical character of the base they are added to into: a) deverbal, e. g. rewrite, outstay, overdo,etc.; b) denominal, e.g. unbutton, detrain, ex-president,etc. and c) deadjectival, e.g. uneasy, biannual,etc.

3) semantically prefixes fall into mono- and polysemantic ;

4) as to the generic denotational meaning:

a) negative prefixes, such as: un1-, non-, in-, dis1-, a-,e.g. ungrateful, incorrect, disadvantage

b) reversative or privative prefixes, such as un2-, de-, dis2-,e.g. untie, disconnect

c) pejorative prefixes, such as mis-, mal-, pseudo-, e.g. miscalculate, pseudo-scientific

d) prefixes of time and order, such as fore-, pre-, post-, ex-, e.g. foretell, post-war

e) prefix of repetition re-,e.g. rebuild, re-write

f) locative prefixes, such as sub-, inter-, trans-, subway trans-atlantic

5) when viewed from the angle of their stylistic reference English prefixes fall into those characterised by neutral stylistic reference and those possessing quite a definite stylistic value. un2-, out-, over-, re-, under-and some others can be qualified as neutral prefixes, e.g., unnatural, resell, underestimate. the literary-bookish character of such prefixes as pseudo-, super-, ultra-, uni-, bi e.g. pseudo-classical, superstructure, ultra-violet, unilateral

6) prefixes may be also classified as to the degree of productivity into highly-productive, productive and non-productive.

1) the part of speech formed.

a) noun-suffixes e.g. -er, -dom, -ness, -ation,etc. (teacher, freedom, brightness);

b) adjective-suffixes e.g. -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous,etc. (agreeable, careless, doubtful, poetic, courageous,etc.);

c) verb-suffixes e.g. -en, -fy, -ise (-ize) (darken, satisfy, harmonise,etc.);

d) adverb-suffixes e.g. -ly, -ward (quickly, eastward,etc.).

2) according to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the affix is usually added to.

a) deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base), e.g. -er, -ing, -ment, -able,etc. (speaker, reading, agreement, suitable,etc.);

b) denominal suffixes, e.g. -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some,etc. (handless, childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome,etc.);

c) de-adjectival suffixes, e.g. -en, -ly, -ish, -ness,etc. (blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness,etc.).

3) based on the criterion of sense expressed by a set of suffixes. For instance, noun-suffixes fall into those denoting:

a) the agent of an action, e.g. -er, -ant (baker, dancer, defendant, etc.);

b) appurtenance, e.g. -an, -ian,-ese, etc. (Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese, Japanese,etc.);

c) collectivity, e.g. -age, -dom, -ery (-ry),etc. (freightage, officialdom, peasantry,etc.);

d) diminutiveness, e.g. -ie, -let, -ling,etc. (birdie, girlie, cloudlet, squireling, wolfling,etc.).

4) from the angle of stylistic reference. those characterised by neutral stylistic reference such as -able,-er, -ing, etc.;

a)those having a certain stylistic value such as -oid, -i/form, -aceous, -tron,etc.


15) Word composition. Classification of compounds + p.43

Composition is the way of word-building when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. There are two characteristic features of English compounds:

a) Both components in an English compound are free stems, that is they can be used as words with a distinctive meaning of their own. The sound pattern will be the same except for the stresses, e.g. «a green-house» and «a green house».

b) English compounds have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of compound words which have form-word stems in their structure, e.g. middle-of-the-road, off-the-record, up-and-doing etc..

The structural unity of a compound word depends upon : a) the unity of stress, b) solid or hyphenated spelling, c) semantic unity, d) unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first component), e.g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood-vessel. The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. snow-white, sky-blue. Spelling in English compounds is not very reliable as well because they can have different spelling even in the same text, e.g. war-ship, blood-vessel can be spelt through a hyphen and also with a break, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a break. All the more so that there has appeared in Modern English a special type of compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are spelt with a break, e.g. air piracy, cargo module, coin change,. The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain etc. In nonidiomatic compounds semantic unity is not strong, e. g., airbus, to bloodtransfuse, astrodynamics etc.

English compounds have the unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. They are used in a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes grammatically, e.g. These girls are chatter-boxes. «Chatter-boxes» is a predicative in the sentence and only the second component changes grammatically.

Classification of compounds 1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into: a) nouns, such as : baby-moon, globe-trotter, b) adjectives, such as : free-for-all, power-happy, c) verbs, such as : to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck,d) adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst, e) prepositions, such as: into, within, f) numerals, such as : fifty-five.

2. According to the way components are joined together compounds are divided into: a) neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any joining morpheme, e.g. ball-point, to windowshop,

b) morphological where components are joined by a linking element : vowels «o» or «i» or the consonant «s», e.g. {«astrospace», «handicraft», «sportsman»),

c) syntactical where the components are joined by means of form-word stems, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all., do-or-die .

3. According to their structure compounds are subdivided into:a) compound words proper which consist of two stems, e.g. to job-hunt, train-sick, go-go, tip-top ,b) derivational compounds, where besides the stems we have affixes, e.g. ear-minded, hydro-skimmer,c) compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.g. cornflower-blue, eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter, d) compound-shortened words, e.g. boatel, tourmobile, VJ-day, motocross, intervision, Eurodollar, Camford. 4. According to the relations between the components compound words are subdivided into : a) subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate; these subordinative relations can be different:with comparative relations, e.g. honey-sweet, eggshell-thin, with limiting relations, e.g. breast-high, knee-deep, with emphatic relations, e.g. dog-cheap, with objective relations, e.g. gold-rich, with cause relations, e.g. love-sick, with space relations, e.g. top-heavy, with time relations, e.g. spring-fresh, with subjective relations, e.g. foot-sore etcb) coordinative compounds where both components are semantically independent. Here belong such compounds when one person (object) has two functions, e.g. secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor, Oxbridge etc. Such compounds are called additive. This group includes also compounds formed by means of reduplication, e.g. fifty-fifty, no-no, and also compounds formed with the help of rhythmic stems (reduplication combined with sound interchange) e.g. criss-cross, walkie-talkie.

5. Syntactical According to the order of the components compounds are divided into compounds with direct order, e.g. kill-joy, and compounds with indirect order, e.g. nuclear-free, rope-ripe .



Date: 2016-01-03; view: 1074


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