Reading and translating.

Text 1

Poverty

In the United States during 1992, any family of four with an annual cash income of less than $14,335 (before taxes) was considered poor. The dollar amount was called the poverty line, an economic measuring rod devised in 1964. The line was set at three times the amount needed to provide the cheapest nutritionally balanced diet. The poverty line is adjusted annually for inflation. While the poverty line in the United States was more than $14,000, the average annual per-person income in Bangladesh was $200, in Ethiopia $130, in Haiti $340, and in Mali $265. Anyone in those nations with an income of $14,000 would be considered wealthy. During the Great Depression in the United States, when half the population was considered poor, a family with an income at the 1992 poverty line could afford to buy a house, a car, clothing, and food. The reality of poverty varies with location and social and political conditions. Poverty basically means a lack of, or an insufficient amount of, the three primary physical needs—food, clothing, and shelter. But for poverty to be recognized, it must exist alongside prosperity. Before the discovery of the New World, the American Indians would not have considered themselves poor, though they lived with only the bare necessities and a few handmade artifacts. The severity of poverty varies, depending on the economic vitality of the nation in which it occurs. In the modern industrialized societies of Western Europe, North America, and Japan, there are many government services provided to alleviate poverty. In addition, the homeless of many cities can often find some shelter and a mission offering free meals. The homeless of Calcutta, India, live and die in the streets with little assistance offered to them.

Types of Poverty To those who are poor, poverty would seem to have no differences. But four kinds of poverty have been described: class, regional, cyclical, and case. Each is a response to different social or economic circumstances. Class poverty. In many nations there are social classes that occupy a low status in relation to the rest of the population. Sometimes these classes are relegated to a low status by law, sometimes by custom or discrimination (see Segregation; Social Class). In India the caste system has created numerous classes whose members are often locked into poverty for life (see India, “Caste”). The burakumin in Japan are another example. In many countries some ethnic minorities occupy the lowest rungs on the economic ladder. This is true of many black and Hispanic Americans in the United States. It has also proved true for the “guest workers” in Northern Europe—individuals who migrated northward from poorer nations to find work after World War II. Because class poverty is often the result of prejudice and discrimination, it tends to perpetuate itself from one generation to the next. When this happens a “culture of poverty” develops. The term was coined by sociologist Oscar Lewis in his book ‘The Children of Sánchez' (1961) about a Mexico City slum family. A similar culture of poverty among blacks in the United States was documented by Gunnar Myrdal in ‘An American Dilemma' (1944). The landmark work, which reveals the extent of poverty in America, was written by Michael Harrington in ‘The Other America' (1962)—a book that helped launch President Lyndon Johnsons antipoverty programs in 1964. Regional poverty. The term regional poverty refers to poverty that is persistent in specific geographic areas. Within single nations there are often extensive pockets of poverty that endure for generations. Such regions include Appalachia in the eastern United States, the northern section of England, Northern Ireland, and southern Italy. More often, however, whole nations or sections of the world can be classified as poor: Central America, South America, the Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, and huge portions of Central Asia.These areas are usually described as the Third World, the economically underdeveloped, or developing, nations (see Third World). Sometimes a shifting of regional poverty may occur. When industrialized nations move factory operations overseas to poorer countries to find cheaper labor, the result is loss of jobs in the home country. International competition has this effect in some industries. Cyclical poverty. The economies of industrialized nations go through cycles of prosperity and recession, commonly referred to as “boom and bust”(see Business Cycle). When an economic slump occurs, as happened in the early 1980s—and most seriously in the Great Depression—many workers lose their jobs. In 1935, for example, there were about 20 million persons unemployed in the United States. When the economy revives, cyclical poverty tends to disappear. Significant changes in industrial economies have led to what is called structural unemployment. Such loss of jobs results not so much from an economic slump as from technological innovations, such as automation, that displace many workers. Thus many workers find themselves with skills for which there are no jobs, while many jobs remain unfilled because workers with the proper skills cannot be found. Structural unemployment may last many years before workers can be retrained or move to a new labor market. Whole regions of some countries—especially coal-mining, steel-producing, and shipbuilding areas—have been hurt by changes in labor markets. Case poverty. Case poverty focuses on individuals who, for some reason, are unable to support themselves and to gain the basic necessities without assistance. Older people, fatherless children, the physically handicapped, chronic alcoholics, drug addicts, and the mentally ill are included among case-poverty victims. They are individuals who, even when the rest of society is prospering, lead a marginal existence. Curing Poverty Jane Jacobs, in her book ‘The Economy of Cities' (1969), states, “Poverty has no causes. Only prosperity has causes.” In making this assertion she points to the only permanent way to eradicate poverty—through economic development. This means that individuals are able to become part of a labor force and earn enough money to afford the necessities—and, beyond them, the luxuries. The alternatives to development are charity or welfare. Neither can eliminate poverty. They serve to hold people in poverty by failing to offer the alternative of work. Money given to the poor, when spent, is gone. It must continually be replaced by charitable organizations or by government agencies (see Welfare State). Readers interested in more information on this subject should consult ‘The Idea of Poverty' (Random House, 1984) by Gertrude Himmelfarb.

(From: Britannica Student Encyclopedia 2004 Children's Edition. 1994-2003 )

Exercises:

1.Explain the italicized grammar phenomena.

2.Give the summary of the text.

3. Define the notions in bold.

4. Do you agree with the underlined statements?

5.Ask problem questions.

Read thetextbelow, translate it and learn the new words:

Text 2

Drug abuse

Drugs are not always beneficial to their users. In the sense of treating the cause or symptoms of an illness, some drugs have no beneficial use at all. People who use these drugs take them without medical approval and for recreational, not medical, reasons. Often the consequences of recreational drug-taking are harmful both to the individuals who abuse drugs and to the people around them. In earlier years most of the people who abused drugs either had easy access to medicines or were impoverished people for whom drugs seemed to provide the only escape from a hopeless existence. In the 1950s more people of all classes and occupations began to use mood-changing drugs without medical supervision, and more kinds of mood-changing drugs became available through both legal and illegal channels. Some mood-changing drugs induce relaxation or sleep. Others induce feelings of exhilaration. All affect the nervous system and all can cause emotional change. Research suggests that addictive drugs and drugs that are commonly abused increase levels of dopamine—an organic compound that inhibits the transmission of nerve impulses—in the brain. The temporary sense of well-being that is produced by such drugs fades when the effects of the drug have worn off, and users are faced with the same problems that plagued them previously. They may then take another dose of the drug rather than endure the pain and trouble of dealing with the original problems. When this happens, the users are said to have acquired a psychological dependence on the drug. As a result, they may stop maturing. In severe cases, drug addicts direct all their energies to getting more of the drug to which they are addicted. In less severe cases—particularly dependence on such legal drugs as the nicotine in cigarettes and the caffeine in coffee—users simply make taking the drug part of their daily routines. In this case the inconvenience of dependence may be considered the personal problem of the users themselves.

The opium poppy contains a narcotic drug called opium—the raw material for some of the most powerful painkillers medicine can provide. Opium itself, opium derivatives (called opiates) such as morphine and codeine, and synthetic chemicals that resemble opium (called opioids) are prescribed for the relief of extreme pain, but opium can also be converted into the dangerous drug heroin. The effect of opium-related drugs depends to a certain extent on the user. Pain-free persons may simply feel dizzy and nauseated on first taking such a drug. For most susceptible people, however, a dose of an opium-related drug makes worries seem distant. This carefree feeling may be followed by a period of stupor. A severe depression commonly follows the stupor, and a regular abuser will want another dose of the drug to ward off this depression. If people take any opium-related drug often enough, they become physically dependent, or addicted, to the drug. If they stop taking it, they become very ill with a withdrawal syndrome. If they are treated with proper medication, the withdrawal syndrome is said to be like influenza, but without such help it can be agonizing. Many drug habits are maintained to avoid this syndrome. (See also Habit and Addiction.) Heroin addiction presents a special danger. Other opium-related drugs are obtained illegally from medical supplies. Heroin, however, is not used for medicinal purposes, and the criminals who produce it are not subject to any quality controls. The heroin they peddle is usually contaminated with all sorts of microorganisms. Moreover, purchasers never know just how much heroin they are buying. Heroin often kills when an addict buys an unusually pure sample and unintentionally injects an overdose. (See also Opium.) The most effective form of treatment for addiction to heroin and other narcotics is the synthetic narcotic drug methadone. The drug itself is extremely addictive, but when it is given to heroin addicts on a daily basis, it prevents withdrawal syndrome and suppresses the drug hunger for heroin. The addict is then gradually weaned from the methadone addiction. (See also Narcotic and Sedative.) (From: Britannica Student Encyclopedia 2004 Children's Edition. 1994-2003

Exercises:

1. Explain the italicized grammar phenomena.

2. Give the summary of the text.

3. Define the notions in bold.

4. Do you agree with the underlined statements?

5. Ask problem questions.

Read thetextbelow, translate it and learn the new words:

Text 3

Date: 2015-12-24; view: 982