Weak Forms of Words

WORDS IN COMPANY

Stressed and Unstressed Words

When we talk we do not talk in single words but in groups of words spoken continuously, with no break or pause. Some words in such word group are stressed, some - unstressed.

In the group “I could hardly believe my eyes” the words hardly, believe and eyes are stressed: this means that one of the syllables of the word (the only syllable in eyes!) is said with greater force, with greater effort, than the others.

What sorts of words are stressed, then, and what sorts are unstressed? First, words of more than one syllable are stressed. In some circumstances English speakers do not stress such words, but it is always possible to stress them and you should do so. Next, words of one syllable are generally not stressed if they are purely grammatical words like pronouns, prepositions, articles. Other words are stressed, for example, full verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and the like. In general it is the picture words which are stressed, the words which give us the picture or provide most of the information. Though you should remember that for special purposes it is possible to stress any English words, even the purely grammatical ones, but usually they are unstressed.

Study the list of stressed and unstressed words in table 2.

Table 2

Weak Forms of Words

In “It was too expensive for them to buy” [It wqz tu: IkspensIv fq Dqm tq baI] тotice the pronunciation of the words was, for, them and to: all of them have the vowel [q]. If those words are pronounced alone, they have the pronunciations [wPz], [fL], [Dem] and [tu:], but usually they are not pronounced alone and are not stressed, and then the forms with [q] are used; we call these the weak forms of those words. The use of weak forms is an essential part of English speech and you must learn to use the weak forms of English words. Some words have more than one weak form and the following list tells you when to use one and when the other. Study table 3. We use strong forms whenever the word is final in the group [QI dqun’t wPnt tH]. Exceptions: he, him, his, her, them, us have their weak forms in final position (unless they are stressed). At the beginning of word groups the forms hJ, hIm, hIz, hW should be used: [ hJ lQIks It].

Table 3

List of Weak Forms

End of table

Rhythm Units

Within the word group there is at least one stressed syllable [֍ wen?֍ su:n֍ nau֍ jes֍]. The length of the syllable in a very short group of this kind depends on the natural length of the vowel and the following consonant(s) if any.

[nau] is a very long syllable because it has a diphthong and no following consonant – we stretch it out.

[su:n] is also very long because it has a long vowel followed by a weak consonant.

[wen] is a little shorter because it has a short vowel, but not very short because of the slight lengthening effect of the following weak consonant.

[jes] is the shortest of these syllables because it has a short vowel followed by a strong consonant, but notice that even this kind of syllable is not very short in English.

The stressed syllable may have one or more unstressed syllables before it: [Its 'kquld], [aI q'gri:], [aI Sl kqm'pleIn]. These unstressed syllables before the stress are said very quickly, so they are all very short, as short as you can make them, but the stressed syllable is as long as before, so there is a great difference of length between the unstressed syllable and the stressed one. Say those examples with very quick, very short unstressed syllables, and then stretch out the stressed one. Do the same with these:

The stressed syllable may also be followed by one or more unstressed syllables: [ teIk It], [O:l qv It?], [ nxtSqrqlI]. But these unstressed syllables are not said specially quickly; what happens is that the stressed syllable and the following unstressed syllable(s) share the amount of time which a single stressed syllable would have; so [naIn], [ naIntI], [ naIntIqq] all take about the same time to say; [naIn] is stretched out, but the [naIn] in [ naIntI] is only half as long and the [naIn] in [ naIntIqq] is shorter still and the unstressed syllables are of the same length as the stressed ones. These unstressed syllables after the stress must not be rushed as the ones before stressed syllable. Say those examples, and be sure that the three words all take about the same time to say. Then try these:

In the group [It wqz 'betq] there are two unstressed syllables before the stress and one after it. The first two are said quickly, the last one not so quickly, taking the same amount of time as [be]. Practise that group with the first two syllables very short and the next two longer. Do the same with the following:

The group [ 'waI 'nOt?] has two stresses and two syllables are given the same length. But in [ 'waI 'nOt 'teIk It?ç] the first two syllables [ waI nOt] are equal in length but the following two syllables [ teIk It] are said in the same time as [ waI], so they are both only half the length of [ waI] and [ nOt]. This is exactly what happens with [naIn] and [ naIntI ].

In [ 'bquq qv Dqm 'left 'з:lI ç] the three syllables of [ bquq qv Dqm] and the two syllables of [ з:lI] are said in the same amount of time as the single syllable [left], so [left] is the longest syllable, the two syllables of [ з:lI] are shorter and the three of [ bquq qv Dqm] are shorter still.

A stressed syllable together with any unstressed syllables which may follow it form a stress group. So [ 'bquq qv Dqm] is one stress group, [ 'left] is another and ['з:lI] is another. The fundamental rule of English rhythm is this: each stress group within a word group is given the same amount of time.

It seems useful to leave out any spaces between syllables belonging to the same stress group as it will remind us that they belong to a single stress group and must be said in the same time as other stress groups in the same word group.

[ 'bquqqvDqm 'left 'з:lI ]

The best way to practise English rhythm is to beat the rhythm with your hand, one beat for each stressed syllable and with exactly the same time between each pair of beats. It is useful to bang rhythmically on the table with a pen and at each bang comes a stressed syllable. Don’t forget that each stress group gets the same time as the others in that word group.

In the group [aIm 'gquIN 'hqum] there are two stress groups [ 'gquIN] and

['hqum]. The syllable [aIm] does not belong to any stress group since it comes before the stress, and it is said very quickly, as we saw earlier, quicker than the unstressed syllable in the stress group ['gquIN]. We can show this as follows:

[aIm 'gquIN 'hqum ]

In the group [aIm 'gquIN 'hqum tq'deI] the unstressed syllable [tq] in [tq'deI] behaves exactly like [aIm], it is said very quickly and the stressed syllable [ hqum] is still just as long as the two syllables of [gquIN], not reduced in length as you might expect: [aIm 'gquIN 'hqum tq'deI ç].

So we say that [tq] does not belong to the same stress group as [hqum], but that it is outside any stress group, like [aIm]. Exactly the same is true for [fq] in [aIm 'gquIN 'hqum fq 'krIsmqsç].

In this sort of arrangement any unstressed syllable before the stressed syllable is said very quickly and does not affect the length of syllables before it. We say them as quickly as we can so that they interfere as little as possible with the regular return of the stressed syllables. Any unstressed syllable after the stress is of course part of the stress group and shares the available time with the other syllables of the stress group.

A unit of this kind, with a stressed syllable as its centre and any unstressed syllables which may come before it and after it, is called a rhythm unit. So [aIm 'gquIN] is a rhythm unit, and so is [ 'hqum] and so is [fq 'krIsmqs].

How to decide what words or syllables go together in a rhythm unit? Here are the rules according to two tendencies which exist in English – semantic and enclitic:

1. If the unstressed syllable(s) is part of the same word as the stressed syllable they belong to the same rhythm group (a semantic viewpoint) :

[ 'tSi:pq 'fFqz] [ 'tSi:p q'fFqz]

(cheaper fares) (cheap affairs)

2. Any unstressed syllables at the beginning of a word group must go together with the following stress group (both semantic and enclitic tendencies):

[aIwqzIn 'lAndqn] [maI q'pOlqdZIz]

3. If the unstressed syllable(s) is closely connected grammatically to the stressed word, although not a part of that word, they belong to the same rhythm unit (a semantic viewpoint):

[ 'gIvIt tq'dZOn] [ 'teIkDqm fqrq'wq:k]

[ 'hau dIdju:'mxnIdZ tqbI 'DFqr In'taIm]

4. Whenever you are in doubt as to which rhythm unit unstressed syllables belong to, put them after a stress rather than before it. So in “He was' older than' me” if you are doubtful about [Dqn], put it with [ quldq] and not with [mi:]: [hIwqz 'quldqDqn 'mi:]. This is called enclitic tendency which is strong at present in English. Semantic tendency is mainly realized in prepared speech.

So, many learners of English find English rhythm rather difficult to master because of the constant changes of syllable length which occur in English word groups and they will need to work hard at it. If every syllable is made the same length in English it gives the effect of a machine-gun firing and makes the utterances very hard to understand. Some good work on English rhythm will help greatly in improving the sound of your speech.

['breIkItIntq 'sevrql 'pJsIz]

Assimilation

Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.

Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to:

1) direction,

2) degree of completeness,

3) degree of stability.

Assimilation can affect the place of obstruction and the active organ of speech; the work of the vocal cords; the position of the lips; the position of the soft palate; the manner of the release of plosive consonants.

Direction of Assimilation.

The influence of the neighbouring sounds in English can act in a progressive, regressive or reciprocal (double) direction.

When some articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the influence of the preceding, which remains unchanged, assimilation is called progressive. For example,

1) the pronunciation of the plural suffix -s of nouns depends on the quality of the preceding consonant (as [z] after voiced consonants, [s] after voiceless consonants).

e.g. pens [penz], calls [kLlz], desks [desks], books [buks]

2) Within the words sandwich, grandmother, etc. under the influence of [n] the consonant [d] changes into [n] and then disappears.

e.g. sandwich [ sxnnwidZ] Þ [ sxnwidZ]

When the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one assimilation is called regressive. For example, within the word width and in the word combination in them the alveolar [d] and [n] become dental before the interdental [q] and [D].

Reciprocalor double assimilation means complex mutual influence of the adjacent sounds. For example, within the word tree [tri:] the sonorant [r] is partly devoiced under the influence of the voiceless [t] and the alveolar [t] becomes post-alveolar before the post-alveolar [r].

Degree of Completeness.

According to its degree, assimilation can be complete, incomplete and intermediate. Assimilation is called complete in the case the two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one. It always takes place when the two sounds differ only in one articulatory feature. We find cases of complete assimilation within words, e.g. cupboard [ kApbqd] Þ [ kAbqd], and at the word junction in fluent speech, e.g. less shy [ les SaI ] Þ [ leS SaI].

Assimilation is called incompletewhen the likeness of the adjoining sounds is partial as the assimilated sound retains its major articulatory features. For example, the sonorants [w, l, r] are partly devoiced when preceded by the voiceless fortis [p, t, k, s, f, q] within words sweet [swi:t], place [pleIs], try [traI ].

The degree of assimilation is said to be intermediate between complete and incomplete when the assimilated consonant changes into a different sound but does not coincide with the assimilating sound.

e.g. gooseberry [ guzberI], congress [ kONgres].

Degree of Stability.

Many assimilatory phenomena of older stages in the development of the language have become obligatory in Modern English; they may, or may not be reflected in spelling. Such changes which have taken place over a period of time within words are called historical.

e.g. orchard (ort + yard) [ Ltjqd] Þ [LtSqd]

In modern language obligatory assimilations are special allophonic variants characteristic of the natives’ speech. The use of the wrong allophone, though a non-phonemic mistake, amounts to mispronunciation and may be one of the causes of a foreign accent making understanding difficult. For example, a dental allophone of the alveolar [t] should be used when it is followed by interdental [q] or [D] as in eighth [eItq].

Besides there are a lot of widely spread but non-obligatory cases of assimilation which can be traced mainly at word boundaries,

e.g. ten minutes [ ten mInIts] Þ [ tem mInIts]

ten girls [ ten gз:lz] Þ [ teN gз:lz]

Non-obligatory assimilations are characteristic of fluent or careless speech and should be avoided by public speakers (lecturers, teachers, etc.).

Quality of Adjacent Sounds.

In Modern English it is mainly consonants that are assimilated. When the two adjacent sounds are consonants there occur most striking assimilative changes.

Modification of the Place of Obstruction and the Active Organ of Speech.

Assimilation may take place within a word and also at word boundaries. The following three important cases should be noticed:

a) The alveolar allophones of [t, d, n, l, s, z] are replaced by the dental variants when immediately followed by the interdental [q] or [D].

e.g. within words: breadth, tenth;

at word boundaries: Put that down! Read this! on the desk.

b) The post-alveolar [t] and [d] are heard before the post-alveolar sonorant [r].

e.g. within words: trip, true, trunk, dream, drink, dry;

at word boundaries: at rest, would read.

c) The bilabial nasal [m] or the alveolar nasal [n] become labio-dental under the influence of immediately following labio-dental fricatives [f, v].

e.g. within words: triumph, comfort, infant;

at word boundaries: come for me, ten forks.

Changes in the Work of the Vocal Cords (Voicing or Devoicing).

Progressive voicing or devoicing is common in English but is very rare in Russian.

a) The sonorants [m, n, l, w, r, j] are partially devoiced when preceded by voiceless consonants [s, p, t, k, f, q, S],

e.g. within words: small, sneer, slow, place, climb, fly, sweep, try, cream, stupid, few.

At word boundaries the sonorants [l, r, w] are slightly devoiced if with the adjacent words they form a phrasal word or a rhythmic group.

e.g. at last, at rest.

b) Contracted forms of the verbs is and has may retain voice or be devoiced depending on the preceding consonants.

e.g. That’s right. [ Dxts raIt]

Jack’s done it. [ Gxks dAn It]

Bob’s gone out. [ bObz gOn aut]

c) The assimilative voicing or devoicing of the possessive suffix -’s or -s’, the plural suffix -(e)s of nouns and the third person singular present indefinite of verbs depends on the quality of the preceding consonant. These suffixes are pronounced as:

[z] after all voiced consonants except [z] and [Z] and after all vowel sounds,

e.g. girls [gз:lz], reads [ri:dz];

[s] after all voiceless consonants except [s] and [S],

e.g. Jack’s [dZxks], books [buks], writes [raIts];

a separate syllable [Iz] after [s, z] or [S, Z],

e.g. George’s [ dLGIz], dishes [ dISIz], washes [ wOSIz], boxes [ bOksIz].

d) The assimilative voicing or devoicing of the suffix -ed of regular verbs also depends on the quality of the preceding consonant. The ending -ed is pronounced as:

[d] after all voiced consonants except [d] and after all vowel sounds,

e.g. lived [lIvd], played [pleId];

[t] after all voiceless consonants except [t],

e.g. worked [wз:kt];

a separate syllable [Id] after [d, t],

e.g. expected [IkspektId], intended [IntendId].

In English regressive voicing or devoicing is found only in a few cases of historical assimilation within a compound word when the semantic independence of the first component is lost.

e.g. fivepence [ faIfpqns], cf. five [faIv]

gooseberry [ guzbqrI], cf. goose [gu:s]

Regressive voicing or devoicing may also take place in closely connected pairs of words.

e.g. I have to [aI hxftu]

She has to [SI hxѕtu]

I used to [aI ju:sttu]

Does she [ dAS SJ]

In English word sequences word final voiced consonants are not fully devoiced under the influence of the immediately following voiceless consonants.

e.g. good chap [ gud tSxp], big case [ bIg keIs]

Neither are the word final voiceless consonants voiced under the influence of the immediately following voiced consonants.

e.g. white dress [ waIt dres], this book [ DIs buk]

Typical mistakes of Russian learners lie in devoicing voiced consonants before voiceless ones and voicing voiceless consonants before voiced ones.

Changes in the Lip Position.

Consonants followed by the sonorant [w] change their lip position. They become lip-rounded in anticipation of [w].

e.g. twinkle, quite, swan, language.

Changes in the Position of the Soft Palate.

Nasal consonants may influence the adjacent plosives. Sometimes [d] changes into [n] under the influence of the preceding [n].

e.g. handsome [ hxndsqm] Þ [ hxnnsqm] Þ [ hxnsm]

handmade [ hxnnmeId]

Nasalisation affects mainly the alveolar consonants, especially adjacent to the negative [n't], and is characteristic of very rapid speech.

e.g. [d] Þ [n] She wouldn't do it. [Si× wunnt du: It]

[d] Þ [b] Þ [m] Good morning. [gub mLnIN] Þ [gum mLnIN]

Changes in the Manner of the Release of Plosive Consonants.

The main variants are:

1) Incomplete plosion.

In the clusters of two plosives [pp, pb, bb, bp, tt, td, dd, dt, ttS, dG, dC, kk, kg, gg, gk] where the plosion of the organs of speech is the same for both consonants, there is no separation of the organs of speech between the two plosives. The hold stage is prolonged from the beginning of the first consonant until the release of the second. The effect is that of a single plosive pronounced with very long hold. In such clusters the first stop has no plosion.

e.g. within a word: accommodation, attraction, bookcase

at word boundaries: lamp post, what time, went down, that child, that joke, big cat, good chance

In a cluster of two plosives or of a plosive and an affricate theclosure of the organs of speech for the second plosive is made before the release of the first. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives. The first plosive is incomplete.

e.g. within a word: talked, object, lecture

at word boundaries: good girl, hot bottle

If you do make two explosions in English it will not cause misunderstanding, but it will sound un-English.

2) Nasal plosion.

When a plosive is followed by the syllabic [n] or [m] it has no release of its own, the so-called "nasal" plosion is produced. In such sequences the closure for the plosive is made normally, but the release is produced not by a removal of the oral closure, which is retained, but by the lowering of the soft palate, which allows the compressed air to escape through the nasal cavity to form the nasal consonant.

e.g. within a word: happen, shipmate, submarine, button, subnormal

at word boundaries: stop moaning, escape noisily, sub man, sob noisily

3) Lateral plosion.

In the sequences of a plosive immediately followed by [l] the closure produced for the plosive is not released till after [l]. Before [l] the release is made by a sudden lowering of the sides of the tongue with lateral plosion.

e.g. please, cattle, black, candle

Date: 2015-12-24; view: 2088