Benefit a. destruction on a mass scale, especially caused by fire or nuclear war

Glimpse b. a nervous disorder typically with compulsive behaviour or panic attacks

Anxiety c. a question which you ask in order to get some information

Holocaust d. an advantage or profit gained from something

Inquiry e. a conception of or belief about something

Notion f. a brief experience of an idea or a momentary or partial view

B. Verbs:

To subsume a. to remove the moisture from esp. food, typically in order to preserve it

To assume b. to accept a belief, theory, or change willingly and enthusiastically

To acquire c. to trust or believe without proof

To borrow d. to buy or obtain for oneself

To garner e. to catch fire or cause to catch fire

To embrace f. to give special importance or value to something in speaking or writing

To desiccate g. to take and use with the intention of returning it

To emphasize h. to travel through an unfamiliar area in order to learn about it

To explore i. to include or absorb something in something else

To ignite j. to gather or collect something, especially information or approval

C. Adjectives:

Innate a. inborn; natural

Authentic b. being necessary by particular regulations

Acknowledged c. uncertain, indefinite, or unclear

Requisite d. being origin and not a copy or being a significant mode of human life

Superficial e. being not deep, or complete; or occurring at or on the surface

Vague f. being declared and accepted by the public

Exercise 2. Read translate the following expressions:

Learning a. stimuli

Structuralist b. growth

Quantitative c. prospects

Emotional d. methods

Historical e. intelligence

Interpretive f. therapy

Unconscious g. behavior

Philosophical h. models

Polite i. memory

Environmental j. mind

Language k. process

Personal l. science

Existential m. society

Future n. thinker

15. animal o. phenomena

16. artificial p. distress

17. implicit q. inclination

18. computer r. experiments

19. psychological s. artifact

20. human t. acquisition

Exercise 4. Read the following text once again and choose the right yes or no answers to the questions given below:

A. Yes, it is.

B. Yes, he was.

C. Yes, he did.

D. Yes, he is.

2. Can the mind function to a person's benefit?

A. No, it doesn’t.

B. Yes, it was.

C. Yes, it can.

D. No, it can’t.

3. Is psychoanalysis a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks?

A. Yes, it does.

B. Yes, it is.

C. Yes, it can.

D. Yes, he is.

4. Were psychoanalytic theory and therapy approved by psychologists and philosophers?

A. Yes, they were.

B. No, they weren’t.

C. No, they didn’t.

D. Yes, they did.

5. Did behaviorism become the dominant school in the USA?

A. Yes, it did.

B. Yes, he was.

C. Yes, he did.

D. Yes, it is.

6. Did behaviorists apply any classical conditioning to the developing human child?

A. Yes, they do.

B. Yes, they did.

C. No, they didn’t.

D. No, they don’t.

7. Did Skinner's behaviorism die?

A. No, it wasn’t.

B. Yes, it was.

C. Yes, it did.

D. No, it didn’t.

8. Was humanistic psychology developed in the 1860s?

A. No, it wasn’t.

B. Yes, it was.

C. Yes, it did.

D. No, it didn’t.

9. Was humanistic psychology developed in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis?

A. No, it wasn’t.

B. Yes, it does.

C. Yes, it did.

D. No, it doesn’t.

10. Does the Gestalt position maintain that the whole of experience is important?

A. No, it isn’t.

B. Yes, he does.

C. Yes, it does.

D. No, it doesn’t.

11. Did existential psychologists emphasize only realistic humanistic themes?

A. No, they didn’t.

B. Yes, they were.

C. No, they weren’t.

D. No, they don’t.

12. Had cognitivism become the dominant paradigm of mainstream psychology by the late 20th century?

A. Yes, it did.

B. Yes, he was.

C. Yes, he had.

D. Yes, it had.

Structuralism

German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with introducing psychological discovery into a laboratory setting. Known as the "father of experimental psychology", he founded the first psychological laboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879. Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components, starting a school of psychology that is called structuralism. Edward Titchener was another major structuralist thinker.

Functionalism

Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was heavily influenced by the work of the American philosopher and psychologist William James. James felt that psychology should have practical value, and that psychologists should find out how the mind can function to a person's benefit. In his book, Principles of Psychology, published in 1890, he laid the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would explore for years to come. Other major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey Carr.

Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin; and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitive — concerned with information and its processing — and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science. In its early years, this development had been seen as a "revolution", as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought — including psychodynamics and behaviorism — that had developed in the meantime.

Psychoanalysis

From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a form of psychotherapy to treat psychological or emotional distress, especially unconscious conflict. Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations. It became very well-known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, Freud helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation.

Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic scholars of the mid-20th century included psychoanalysts, psychologists, psychiatrists, and philosophers. Among these thinkers were Erik Erickson, Melanie Klein, D. W. Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby and Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud. Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as Neo-Freudian.

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists and philosophers such as B. F. Skinner, Hans Eysenck, and Karl Popper. Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that Freud's, as well as Alfred Adler's, psychoanalytic theories included enough ad hoc safeguards against empirical contradiction to keep the theories outside the realm of scientific inquiry. By contrast, Eysenck maintained that although Freudian ideas could be subjected to experimental science, they had not withstood experimental tests. By the 20th century, psychology departments in American universities had become experimentally oriented, marginalizing Freudian theory and regarding it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact. Meanwhile, however, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds, while scholars of the humanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter."

Behaviorism

Skinner's teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed instruction

In the United States, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s. Behaviorism was founded in the early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B. F. Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the ways in which people might be predisposed, or conditioned, by their environments to behave in certain ways.

Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited that behavioral tendencies are determined by immediate associations between various environmental stimuli and the degree of pleasure or pain that follows. Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to consist of organisms' conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment. The stimuli were held to exert influence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the previous intensity of their associated pain or pleasure. Much research consisted of laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated.

Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism. He believed that the contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. He focused on behavior – environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment. Behaviorists usually rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.

Among the behaviorists' most famous creations are John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment, which applied classical conditioning to the developing human child, and Skinner's notion of operant conditioning, which acknowledged that human agency could affect patterns and cycles of environmental stimuli and behavioral responses.

Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence. Martin Seligman and colleagues discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to outcomes ("learned helplessness") that opposed the predictions of behaviorism. But Skinner's behaviorism did not die, perhaps in part because it generated successful practical applications. The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.

Humanism

Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole person – t just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning. Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some of the founders of the humanistic school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.

Gestalt

Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology. This approach is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather than breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the whole of experience is important, and the whole is different than the sum of its parts.

Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology.

Existentialism

Influenced largely by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential breed of psychology, which included existential therapy, in the 1950s and 1960s. Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of anxiety. Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns, and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment, and he created a variety of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy. In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.

Baddeley's model of working memory

Cognitivism

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.

Noam Chomsky helped to ignite a "cognitive revolution" in psychology when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "stimulus", "response", and "reinforcement", arguing that such ideas — which Skinner had borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory — could be applied to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a vague and superficial manner. The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior (including language) is contingent upon learning and reinforcement. Social learning theorists such as Albert Bandura argued that the child's environment could make contributions of its own to the behaviors of an observant subject.

The Müller-Lyer illusion. Psychologists make inferences about mental processes from shared phenomena such as optical illusions.

Meanwhile, accumulating technology helped to renew interest and belief in the mental states and representations — i.e., the cognition — that had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain. With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines. Research in cognition had proven practical since World War II, when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation. By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism had become the dominant paradigm of mainstream psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as a popular branch.

Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied and that the scientific method should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set such concepts as "subliminal processing" and "implicit memory" in place of the psychoanalytic "unconscious mind" or the behavioristic "contingency-shaped behaviors". Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the umbrella discipline of cognitive science.

Exercise 5. Read the texts given above and choose the right answer to each question:

A. Wilhelm Wundt

B. William James

C. Sigmund Freud

D. Abraham Maslow

2. What did Ivan Pavlov discover?

Date: 2015-12-24; view: 719