Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.

(a) Ifthe adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree is formed by adding -erand the superlative by adding -est.

fast — faster — fastest hard — harder — hardest

(b) Adverbs ending in -ly form the comparative by means of more and the superlative by means of most.

wisely — more wisely — most wisely beautifully— more beautifully— most beautifully

(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:

well — better — best

badly — worse — worst

much — more — most

little — less — least

§ 4. According to their meaningadverbs fall under several groups:

(1) adverbs of time(today, tomorrow, soon, etc.);

(2) adverbs of repetitionor frequency(often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes, etc.);

(3) adverbs of placeand direction(inside, outside, here, there, back­ward, upstairs, etc.);

(4) adverbs of causeand consequence(therefore, consequently, ac­cordingly, etc.);

(5) adverbs of manner(kindly, quickly, hard, etc.);

(6) adverbs of degree, measureand quantity(very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly, etc.).

Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.

Interrogativeadverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.

Conjunctiveand relativeadverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.[19]

Some adverbs are homonymous with nouns, adjectives, prepo­sitions, conjunctions[20], words of the category of state[21] and modal words[22].

Chapter X

THE MODAL WORDS

§ 1. The modal wordsexpress the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability of the action he speaks about.

§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:

(1) words expressing certainty(certainly, surely, assuredly, of course,no doubt, apparently, undoubtedly, etc.);

(2) words expressing supposition(perhaps, maybe, possibly, prob­ably, etc.);

(3) words showing whether the speaker considers the action he speaks about desirable or undesirable(happily — unhappily; luckily — un­luckily; fortunately — unfortunately).

§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses.[23] Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.[24]

Certainlyyou'll admit we could finish all this in a month. (Wil­son)

"Will you allow me to detain you one moment," said he. "Cer­tainly,"replied the unwelcome visitor. (Dickens)

§ 4. Most modal words have developed from adverbs, so very often there exists a formal identity between modal words and adve rbs. For instance such modal words as certainly, surely, happily are homonymous with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily.

Such modal words as possibly, probably, indeed, also derived from adverbs, have no corresponding homonymous adverbs because the latter ceased to be used in Modern English.

Though formally identical with adverbs, modal words differ from them in meaning and syntactical function.

If he were not married as happilyas he was, might not something come of it? (Dreiser) (ADVERB)

... she hauled me to the washstand, inflicted a merciless, but happilybrief scrub on my face and hands with soap water, and a coarse towel... (Ch. Bronte) (MODAL WORD)

Lamlein rose. "We have fulfilled our obligations," he said pomp­ously, and yet not quite certainly.(Heym) (ADVERB)

Soames smiled. Certainly,uncle Jolyon had a way with him. (Galsworthy) (MODAL WORD)

Slowly, surely,with the secret inner process that works the destruction of an old tree, the poison of the wounds to his happiness, his will, his pride, had corroded the comely edifice of his philosophy. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)

Over the ridge she would find him. Surelyshe would find him over the ridge. (Wells) (MODAL WORD)

Chapter XI

THE INTERJECTION

§ 1. The interjectionis a part of speech which expresses various emo­tions without naming them.

§ 2. According to their meaninginterjections fall under two main groups, namely emotionalinterjections and imperativeinterjections.

1. Emotionalinterjections express the feelings of the speaker. They are: ah, oh, eh, bravo, alas, etc.

... A man jumped on top of the barricade and waving exuberantly shouted, "Americans! Hurrah!"(Heym) (joy) Alas!The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window "To let". (Dickens) (sorrow)

Psha!There's no possibility of being witty without a little ill nature. (Sheridan) (contempt)

Oh, bother! Ican't see anyone now. Who is it? (Shaw) (indigna­tion)

"Dear me!"says Mr. Chillip meekly smiling with something shin­ing in his eyes. (Dickens) (surprise)

2. Imperativeinterjections show the will of the speaker or his order or appeal to the hearer. They are: here, hush, sh-sh, well, come, now, etc.

Here!I've had enough of this. I'm going. (Shaw) (protest)

"Upon my word I was not awake, sir," replied Oliver earnestly. "I was not, indeed, sir." "Tush, tush,my dear!" said the Jew abruptly resuming his old manner. (Dickens) (order)

Date: 2015-12-18; view: 482